Klaus-Martin Schulte examined all papers published from 2004 to February 2007.

February 8

Hippocrates and Medical Education: Selected Papers Presented at the XIIth International Hippocrates Colloquium, Universiteit Leiden, 24-26 August 2005.

Hitler Diaries

The Hitler Diaries (German: Hitler-Tagebücher) were a series of sixty volumes of journals purportedly written by Adolf Hitler, but forged by Konrad Kujau between 1981 and 1983.

Hitler Diaries

More importantly, according to Harris, it was decided that they should not have the material examined by a forensic scientist or historian until every diary had been obtained.

Hitler Diaries

While the discussions between Murdoch and Sorge were taking place, the diaries were examined by Broyle and his Newsweek team.

Hitler Diaries


A drop of volcanic activity in the early 20th century may have had a warming effect.

1257 Samalas eruption

Sea surface temperatures too decreased by 0.3–2.2 °C (0.54–3.96 °F), triggering changes in the ocean circulations.

African humid period

In addition, the end of the 20th century drying trend may be due to global warming.

Climate change (general concept)

Notable eruptions in the historical records are the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo which lowered global temperatures by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) for up to three years, and the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora causing the Year Without a Summer.

Cloud

Most of the sunlight that reaches the ground is absorbed, warming the surface, which emits radiation upward at longer, infrared, wavelengths.

Lake Tahoe

Analysis of the temperature records in Lake Tahoe has shown that the lake warmed (between 1969 and 2002) at an average rate of 0.027 °F (0.015 °C) per year.


However, volcanoes have had very little impact on the last 40 years of global warming.

Climate change (general concept)

Huaynaputina

The eruption had a noticeable impact on growth conditions in the Northern Hemisphere, which were the worst of the last 600 years, with summers being on average 0.8 °C (1.4 °F) colder than the mean.

Ice age

The consensus is that several factors are important: atmospheric composition, such as the concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane (the specific levels of the previously mentioned gases are now able to be seen with the new ice core samples from EPICA Dome C in Antarctica over the past 800,000 years); changes in the earth's orbit around the Sun known as Milankovitch cycles; the motion of tectonic plates resulting in changes in the relative location and amount of continental and oceanic crust on the earth's surface, which affect wind and ocean currents; variations in solar output; the orbital dynamics of the Earth–Moon system; the impact of relatively large meteorites and volcanism including eruptions of supervolcanoes.

Younger Dryas

The Younger Dryas (around 12,800 to 11,550 years BP) was a return to glacial conditions after the Late Glacial Interstadial, which temporarily reversed the gradual climatic warming after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) started receding around 20,000 BP.

Younger Dryas

"Volcanic influence on centennial to millennial Holocene Greenland temperature change".


When stomata-derived CO2 (red) is compared to ice core-derived CO2 (blue), the stomata generally show much more variability in the atmospheric CO2 level and often show levels much higher than the ice cores.

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO 2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica.

Greenhouse gas

One study using evidence from stomata of fossilized leaves suggests greater variability, with carbon dioxide mole fractions above 300 ppm during the period seven to ten thousand years ago, though others have argued that these findings more likely reflect calibration or contamination problems rather than actual CO 2 variability.

Greenhouse gas

Because of the way air is trapped in ice (pores in the ice close off slowly to form bubbles deep within the firn) and the time period represented in each ice sample analyzed, these figures represent averages of atmospheric concentrations of up to a few centuries rather than annual or decadal levels.

Greenhouse gas

Measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide are currently 100 ppm higher than pre-industrial levels.

Ice core

The proportions of different oxygen and hydrogen isotopes provide information about ancient temperatures, and the air trapped in tiny bubbles can be analysed to determine the level of atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide.


Arctic summer sea ice has shrunk by an area equal to Western Australia, and might be all gone in a decade.

Arctic Ocean

Research shows that the Arctic may become ice-free in the summer for the first time in human history by 2040.

Arctic Ocean

The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%.

Arctic

There is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100.

Arctic

About half of the analyzed models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100.

Global warming

Global warming has led to decades of shrinking and thinning of the Arctic sea ice, making it vulnerable to atmospheric anomalies.


Thanks to a rapid rebound in recent months, global sea ice levels now equal those seen 29 years ago, when the year 1979 also drew to a close.

Glacier

This post-glacial rebound, which proceeds very slowly after the melting of the ice sheet or glacier, is currently occurring in measurable amounts in Scandinavia and the Great Lakes region of North America.

Ice age

Due to the high viscosity of the Earth's mantle, the flow of mantle rocks which controls the rebound process is very slow—at a rate of about 1 cm/year near the center of rebound area today.

Post-glacial rebound

Unusually rapid (up to 4.1 cm/year) present glacial isostatic rebound due to recent ice mass losses in the Amundsen Sea embayment region of Antarctica coupled with low regional mantle viscosity is predicted to provide a modest stabilizing influence on marine ice sheet instability in West Antarctica, but likely not to a sufficient degree to arrest it.

Post-glacial rebound

Thus global sea level fell during glaciation.

Post-glacial rebound

Recent global warming has caused mountain glaciers and the ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica to melt and global sea level to rise.


In fact, the rate of increase from September onward is the fastest rate of change on record, either upwards or downwards.

Financial crisis of 2007–08

It then entered a pronounced decline, which accelerated markedly in October 2008.

Financial crisis of 2007–08

The TED spread, an indicator of perceived credit risk in the general economy, spiked up in July 2007, remained volatile for a year, then spiked even higher in September 2008, reaching a record 4.65% on October 10, 2008.

Financial crisis of 2007–08

The US unemployment rate increased to 10.1% by October 2009, the highest rate since 1983 and roughly twice the pre-crisis rate.

Financial crisis of 2007–08

Already-rising default rates on "subprime" and adjustable-rate mortgages (ARM) began to increase quickly thereafter.

Tendency of the rate of profit to fall:1042

Tendency of the rate of profit to fall

From September 2018 onward, as the economic and political news worsened, the bloated US stockmarkets began to deflate, while the VIX index trebled.


The data is being reported by the University of Illinois's Arctic Climate Research Center, and is derived from satellite observations of the Northern and Southern hemisphere polar regions (Daily Tech).

Cryosphere

Satellite data since the early 1970s reveal considerable seasonal, regional, and interannual variability in the sea-ice covers of both hemispheres.

Extratropical cyclone

It was developed completely from surface-based weather observations, including descriptions of clouds found near frontal boundaries.

Precipitation

As a result, the modern global record of precipitation largely depends on satellite observations.

Precipitation

The IR estimates have rather low skill at short time and space scales, but are available very frequently (15 minutes or more often) from satellites in geosynchronous Earth orbit.

Snow

These models typically derive snow water equivalent (SWE) in some manner from satellite observations of snow cover.


Ice mass loss is occuring at an accelerated rate in Greenland, Antarctica and globally from inland glaciers.

Ice sheet

The Greenland, and possibly the Antarctic, ice sheets have been losing mass recently, because losses by ablation including outlet glaciers exceed accumulation of snowfall.

Pine Island Glacier

Pine Island Glacier (PIG) is a large ice stream, and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica, responsible for about 25% of Antarctica's ice loss.

Retreat of glaciers since 1850

The significant accelerations noted on the three largest glaciers began at the calving front and propagated inland and are not seasonal in nature.

Retreat of glaciers since 1850

"Sharply increased mass loss from glaciers and ice caps in theCanadian Arctic Archipelago".

Sea level rise

"A tipping point in refreezing accelerates mass loss of Greenland's glaciers and ice caps".


Arctic sea ice is also falling at an accelerated rate.

Arctic sea ice decline

The fast rate of the sea ice melting is resulting in the oceans absorbing and heating up the Arctic.

Arctic sea ice decline

Accelerated decline in the Arctic sea ice.

Arctic

"Ice melting across globe at accelerating rate, NASA says."

Climate change in the Arctic

The rate of the decline in entire Arctic ice coverage is accelerating.

Sea level rise

"Antarctica ice melt has accelerated by 280% in the last 4 decades".


The exception to this ice loss is Antarctic sea ice which has been growing despite the warming Southern Ocean.

Antarctic sea ice

Since the ocean off the Antarctic coast usually is much warmer than the air over it, the extent of the sea ice is largely controlled by the winds and currents that push it northwards.

Antarctic sea ice

The net change is a slight increase in the area of sea ice in the Antarctic seas (unlike the Arctic Ocean, which is showing a much stronger decrease in the area of sea ice).

Antarctic sea ice

Increased sea ice extent does not indicate that the Southern Ocean is cooling, since the Southern Ocean is warming.

Antarctic sea ice

Sea ice coverage in the Arctic has shrunk at a much faster rate than it has expanded in the Southern Ocean.

Antarctica

Sea ice extent expands annually in the Antarctic winter and most of this ice melts in the summer.


Together, these two unaltered [sea level] datasets indicate that global mean sea level trend has remained stable over the entire period 1992-2007, altogether eliminating the apparent 3.2 mm/year rate of sea-level rise arising from the “adjusted” data.

Measurements by Jason-1 indicate that mean sea level has been rising at an average rate of 2.28 millimeters (.09 inches) per year since 2001.

Physical impacts of climate change

Since 1900, the sea level has risen at an average of 1.7 mm (0.067 in) per year; since 1993, satellite altimetry from TOPEX/Poseidon indicates a rate of about 3 mm (0.12 in) per year.

Sea level rise

Current rates of sea level rise from satellite altimetry have been estimated to be 3.0 ± 0.4 millimetres (0.118 ± 0.016 in) per year for the period 1993–2017.

Sea level rise

This network was used, in combination with satellite altimeter data, to establish that global mean sea-level rose 19.5 cm (7.7 in) between 1870 and 2004 at an average rate of about 1.44 mm/yr (1.7 mm/yr during the 20th century).

Sea level rise

Data collected by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia show the current global mean sea level trend to be 3.2 mm (0.13 in) per year, a doubling of the rate during the 20th century.


The claim sea level isn’t rising is based on blatantly doctored graphs and conspiracy theories that are contradicted by empirical observational data.

Econometrics

More precisely, it is "the quantitative analysis of actual economic phenomena based on the concurrent development of theory and observation, related by appropriate methods of inference".

Falsifiability

In the philosophy of science, verificationism holds that a statement must, in principle, be empirically verifiable in order that it be scientific.

Logical positivism

A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its falsity or truth.

Science

Both natural and social sciences are empirical sciences as their knowledge are based on empirical observations and are capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.

Science

Natural science is concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation.


The original global temperature schematic which appeared in the IPCC First Assessment Report and seemed to show the Medieval Warm Period (MWP) hotter than Present was based on the central England temperature record, and ended in the 1950s.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:270

This graph extended the similar graph in Figure 3.20 from the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995, and differed from a schematic in the first assessment report that lacked temperature units, but appeared to depict larger global temperature variations over the past 1000 years, and higher temperatures during the Medieval Warm Period than the mid 20th century.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:271

The schematic was not an actual plot of data, and was based on a diagram of temperatures in central England, with temperatures increased on the basis of documentary evidence of Medieval vineyards in England.

Medieval Warm Period

The Medieval Warm Period (MWP) also known as the Medieval Climate Optimum, or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region lasting from c. 950 to c. 1250.

Medieval Warm Period

However, that view was questioned by other researchers; the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 discussed the "Medieval Warm Period around 1000 AD (which may not have been global) and the Little Ice Age which ended only in the middle to late nineteenth century."

Soon and Baliunas controversy

The IPCC First Assessment Report included a "schematic diagram" of global temperature variations over the last thousand years which has been traced to a graph based loosely on Hubert Lamb's 1965 paper.


"by the 2001 [IPCC] climate assessment...the Medieval Warm Period had been ingeniously wiped out.

Hockey stick controversy

The IPCC First Assessment Report in 1990 noted evidence that Holocene climatic optimum around 5,000-6,000 years ago had been warmer than the present (at least in summer) and that in some areas there had been exceptional warmth during "a shorter Medieval Warm Period (which may not have been global)" about AD 950-1250, followed by a cooler period of the Little Ice Age which ended only in the middle to late nineteenth century.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:298

These values are much greater than the 9–88 cm as projected by the IPCC itself in its Third Assessment Report, published in 2001".

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:348

"We concur with the climate science assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2001 ... We endorse the conclusions of the IPCC assessment..." Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society.

Medieval Warm Period

The IPCC Third Assessment Report from 2001 then summarized research: "evidence does not support globally synchronous periods of anomalous cold or warmth over this time frame, and the conventional terms of 'Little Ice Age' and 'Medieval Warm Period' appear to have limited utility in describing trends in hemispheric or global mean temperature changes in past centuries."


The Ozone Layer stops UV radiation from entering our atmosphere.

Earth

The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land.

Ozone layer

Although the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the sun.

Ozone layer

The breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere results in reduced absorption of ultraviolet radiation.

Ozone layer

Consequently, unabsorbed and dangerous ultraviolet radiation is able to reach the Earth's surface at a higher intensity.

Ozone

It is present in very low concentrations throughout the latter, with its highest concentration high in the ozone layer of the stratosphere, which absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation.


At present, climate forecasts even as little as six weeks ahead can be diametrically the opposite of what actually occurs, even if the forecasts are limited to a small region of the planet.'

Ensemble forecasting

These uncertainties limit forecast model accuracy to about six days into the future.

Ensemble forecasting

As proposed by Edward Lorenz in 1963, it is impossible for long-range forecasts—those made more than two weeks in advance—to predict the state of the atmosphere with any degree of skill owing to the chaotic nature of the fluid dynamics equations involved.

Meteorology

Mathematical models used to predict the long term weather of the Earth (climate models), have been developed that have a resolution today that are as coarse as the older weather prediction models.

Meteorology

Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere at a future time and given location.

Weather forecasting

As proposed by Edward Lorenz in 1963, long range forecasts, those made at a range of two weeks or more, are impossible to definitively predict the state of the atmosphere, owing to the chaotic nature of the fluid dynamics equations involved.


Weather is chaotic because air is light, it has low friction and viscosity, it expands strongly when in contact with hot surfaces and it conducts heat poorly.

Friction

The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat that can affect the contact surface properties (even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces).

Liquid

Liquids tend to have better thermal conductivity than gases, and the ability to flow makes a liquid suitable for removing excess heat from mechanical components.

Viscosity

The bulk viscosity (also called volume viscosity) expresses a type of internal friction that resists the shearless compression or expansion of a fluid.

Weather

Weather is driven by air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place and another.

Weather

A hot surface warms the air above it causing it to expand and lower the density and the resulting surface air pressure.


The Independent Climate Change Email Review found the CRU scientists were unhelpful and unsympathetic to information requesters and at times broke FoI laws.

Climatic Research Unit documents

The Science and Technology Select Committee report blamed the university for mishandling Freedom of Information requests and said it had "found ways to support the culture at CRU of resisting disclosure of information to climate change sceptics".

Climatic Research Unit documents

The e-mail theft highlighted "the harassment that denialists inflict on some climate-change researchers, often in the form of endless, time-consuming demands for information under the US and UK Freedom of Information Acts.

Climatic Research Unit email controversy:256

Over 95% of the CRU climate data set had been available to the public for several years before July 2009, when the university received numerous FOI requests for raw data or details of the confidentiality agreements from Stephen McIntyre and readers of his Climate Audit blog.

Climatic Research Unit email controversy:83

In addition, the investigation would review CRU's compliance with Freedom of Information Act requests and also "make recommendations about the management, governance and security structures for CRU and the security, integrity and release of the data it holds".

Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit:57

It blamed the university for mishandling Freedom of Information requests, and said it had “found ways to support the culture at CRU of resisting disclosure of information to climate change sceptics”.


Skeptics who oppose scientific findings that threaten their world view are far closer to Galileo's belief-based critics in the Catholic Church.

Creationism

Several religious organizations, among them the Catholic Church, hold that their faith does not conflict with the scientific consensus regarding evolution.

Creation–evolution controversy

Many creationists strongly oppose certain scientific theories in a number of ways, including opposition to specific applications of scientific processes, accusations of bias within the scientific community, and claims that discussions within the scientific community reveal or imply a crisis.

Galileo affair

Galileo's contributions caused difficulties for theologians and natural philosophers of the time, as they contradicted scientific and philosophical ideas based on those of Aristotle and Ptolemy and closely associated with the Catholic Church.

Galileo affair

Galileo's discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church, and in 1616 the Inquisition declared heliocentrism to be "formally heretical."

Science and the Catholic Church

An alternative criticism is that the Church opposed particular scientific discoveries that it felt challenged its authority and power – particularly through the Reformation and on through the Enlightenment.


"I mean, it - I mean - and I tell somebody, I said, just because you have a group of scientists that have stood up and said here is the fact, Galileo got outvoted for a spell" (Texas Governor Rick Perry)

2006 Texas gubernatorial election

Perry was re-elected to a second full term in office, winning 39% of the vote to Bell's 30%, Strayhorn's 18% and Friedman's 12%.

2006 Texas gubernatorial election

Exit polls revealed that Perry won the Anglo vote with 46%, while Bell got 22%, Strayhorn got 16% and Friedman got 15%.

Rick Perry 2012 presidential campaign

Further, during a Republican gubernatorial debate in January 2010, when asked if he would commit to serving out his term if re-elected, he replied that "the place hasn't been made yet" where he would rather serve than the governor of Texas.

Rick Perry

Perry has called himself "a firm believer in intelligent design as a matter of faith and intellect", and has expressed support for its teaching alongside evolution in Texas schools, but has also said that "educators and local school officials, not the governor, should determine science curriculum".

Rick Perry

Jeff L. Blackburn, chief counsel of the Innocence Project of Texas, said of Perry that "He has done more good than any other governor we've ever had [...] unless, of course, it involves the death penalty.


Claims that the IPCC does not accurately represent the views and findings of the scientists, on whose work the IPCC reports are based, are not supported by the facts.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:180

[...] This conclusion is based on a substantial array of scientific evidence, including recent work, and is consistent with the conclusions of recent assessments by the U.S.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:23

The U.S. government was the main force in forming the IPCC as an autonomous intergovernmental body in which scientists took part both as experts on the science and as official representatives of their governments, to produce reports which had the firm backing of all the leading scientists worldwide researching the topic, and which then had to gain consensus agreement from every one of the participating governments.

Scientific consensus on climate change

This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports.

Scientific consensus on climate change:117

Scientific consensus on climate change

This report explicitly endorses the IPCC view of attribution of recent climate change as representing the view of the scientific community: The changes observed over the last several decades are likely mostly due to human activities, but we cannot rule out that some significant part of these changes is also a reflection of natural variability.

The Great Global Warming Swindle

The film argues that IPCC reports misrepresent the views of scientists who contribute to them through selective editorialising.


Ironically, it's those who are mispresenting Hulme's paper that are the ones being misleading.

Imagism

This note, along with the appendix note ("The Complete Works of T. S. Hulme") in Pound's book Ripostes (1912), are considered to be the first appearances of the word "Imagiste" (later anglicised to "Imagist") in print.

Imagism

To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation.

Imagism

Imagism refers to the manner of presentation, not to the subject."

Mike Hulme

He is best known as the author of Why We Disagree About Climate Change published in 2009 by Cambridge University Press and which was named by The Economist in December 2009 as one of their four Books of Year for science and technology.

Mike Hulme

In 2008, Hulme made a personal statement on what he called the "5 lessons of climate change", as: "climate change is a relative risk, not an absolute one" "climate risks are serious, and we should seek to minimise them" "our world has huge unmet development needs" "our current energy portfolio is not sustainable" "massive and deliberate geo-engineering of the planet is a dubious practice" After the Climatic Research Unit email controversy, he wrote an article for the BBC in which he said: At the very least, the publication of private CRU e-mail correspondence should be seen as a wake-up call for scientists – and especially for climate scientists.


'The UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change misled the press and public into believing that thousands of scientists backed its claims on manmade global warming, according to Mike Hulme, a prominent climate scientist and IPCC insider.

Global warming controversy

The work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) represents the consensus of the international scientific community on climate change science.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:0

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an intergovernmental body of the United Nations that is dedicated to providing the world with objective, scientific information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of the risk of human-induced climate change, its natural, political, and economic impacts and risks, and possible response options.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:253

There is widespread support for the IPCC in the scientific community, which is reflected in publications by other scientific bodies and experts.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:280

Criticism of the MBH99 reconstruction in a review paper, which was quickly discredited in the Soon and Baliunas controversy, was picked up by the Bush administration, and a Senate speech by US Republican senator James Inhofe alleged that "manmade global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people".

United Nations

In 1988, the UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), another UN organization, established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which assesses and reports on research on global warming.


Science entitled The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change (Oreskes 2004).

Benny Peiser

In 2004, a paper was published in the journal Science by Naomi Oreskes titled Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change.

Merchants of Doubt

Her work came to public attention in 2004 with the publication of "The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change," in Science, in which she wrote that there was no significant disagreement in the scientific community about the reality of global warming from human causes.

Scientific consensus on climate change:258

Scientific consensus on climate change

In 2004, the geologist and historian of science Naomi Oreskes summarized a study of the scientific literature on climate change.

Scientific consensus on climate change:34

Scientific consensus on climate change

The Working Group I report (WG1) was published in September 2013.

Scientific consensus on climate change:732

Scientific consensus on climate change


Benny Peiser conducted a search of peer-reviewed literature on the ISI Web of Science database between 1993 and 2003.

Google Scholar

Google Scholar is a freely accessible web search engine that indexes the full text or metadata of scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats and disciplines.

Google Scholar

Released in beta in November 2004, the Google Scholar index includes most peer-reviewed online academic journals and books, conference papers, theses and dissertations, preprints, abstracts, technical reports, and other scholarly literature, including court opinions and patents.

Philosophy of geography

In 2005 the society sponsoring these annual meetings became the International Association for the Study of Environment, Space, and Place, and in 2009 the book series gave way to a peer-reviewed journal, Environment, Space, Place, published semiannually and currently edited by C. Patrick Heidkamp, Troy Paddock, and Christine Petto of Southern Connecticut State University.

Philosophy of geography

Three volumes of an annual peer-reviewed journal, Philosophy and Geography, were published by Rowman & Littlefield Press which later became a bi-annual journal published by Carfax publishers.

Web of Science

It was originally produced by the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) and is currently maintained by Clarivate Analytics (previously the Intellectual Property and Science business of Thomson Reuters) A citation index is built on the fact that citations in science serve as linkages between similar research items, and lead to matching or related scientific literature, such as journal articles, conference proceedings, abstracts, etc.


For example, geothermal energy is available at all times, concentrated solar thermal energy has storage capability, and wind energy can be stored in compressed air.

Concentrated solar power

The thermal storage capacity is indicated in hours of power generation at nameplate capacity.

Concentrated solar power

CSP with thermal storage systems are also available using Brayton cycle with air instead of steam for generating electricity and/or steam round the clock.

Concentrated solar power

A CSP plant can incorporate thermal energy storage, which stores energy either in the form of sensible heat, or as latent heat (for example, using molten salt), which enables these plants to continue to generate electricity whenever it is needed, day or night.

Solar power

Concentrated solar power plants may use thermal storage to store solar energy, such as in high-temperature molten salts.

Thermal energy storage

Presently, this is a commercially used technology to store the heat collected by concentrated solar power (e.g., from a solar tower or solar trough).


Numerous case studies on both regional and global scales have determined that renewable energy, if properly implemented, can provide baseload power.

Renewable energy in Kenya

Geothermal power has the potential to provide reliable, cost-competitive, baseload power with a small carbon footprint, and reduces vulnerability to climate by diversifying power supply away from hydropower, which currently provides the majority of Kenya’s electricity.

Renewable energy

Low temperature Geothermal (generally referred to as "GHP") is an increasingly important renewable technology because it both reduces total annual energy loads associated with heating and cooling, and it also flattens the electric demand curve eliminating the extreme summer and winter peak electric supply requirements.

Renewable energy

EGS and HDR technologies, such as hydrothermal geothermal, are expected to be baseload resources which produce power 24 hours a day like a fossil plant.

Variable renewable energy

Firm capacity is the amount of power that can be guaranteed to be provided as base power.

Variable renewable energy

Some renewable electricity sources have identical variability to coal-fired power stations, so they are base-load, and can be integrated into the electricity supply system without any additional back-up.


Trenberth's views are clarified in the paper "An imperative for climate change planning: tracking Earth's global energy".

Climatic Research Unit documents

Earth Summit 2002

The Declaration on the Human Environment also known as the Stockholm Declaration set out the principles for various international environmental issues, including human rights, natural resource management, pollution prevention and the relationship between the environment and development.

Global warming

Climate change is more accurate scientifically to describe the various effects of greenhouse gases on the world because it includes extreme weather, storms and changes in rainfall patterns, ocean acidification and sea level.".

Kevin E. Trenberth

In a 2013 scientific paper in Geophysical Research Letters, Trenberth and co-authors presented an observation-based reanalysis of global ocean temperatures.

Kevin E. Trenberth

In a 2009 paper, "An imperative for climate change planning: tracking Earth's global energy", Trenberth discussed the distribution of heat and how it was affected by climate forcing, including greenhouse gas changes.


As it happens, the writer of that October 2009 e-mail—Kevin Trenberth, a lead author of the warmist bible, the 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report—told Congress two years ago that evidence for manmade warming is "unequivocal.

Global warming

IPCC AR5 WG1 Summary for Policymakers 2013, p. 4: Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia.

Kevin E. Trenberth

He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change (see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability (CLIVAR) program.

Scientific consensus on climate change:226

Scientific consensus on climate change

In October 2009, the leaders of 18 US scientific societies and organizations sent an open letter to the United States Senate reaffirming the scientific consensus that climate change is occurring and is primarily caused by human activities.

Scientific consensus on climate change:455

Scientific consensus on climate change

Retrieved 2010-08-28. the leading international network of climate scientists has concluded for the first time that global warming is 'unequivocal' and that human activity is the main driver, 'very likely' causing most of the rise in temperatures since 1950 Stevens, William K. (2007-02-06).

Scientific consensus on climate change:58

Scientific consensus on climate change

The New York Times reported that "the leading international network of climate scientists has concluded for the first time that global warming is 'unequivocal' and that human activity is the main driver, 'very likely' causing most of the rise in temperatures since 1950".


He claimed "the planet is running a ’fever’ and the prognosis is that it is apt to get much worse."

Dengue fever

"The current and future global distribution and population at risk of dengue".

Dysentery

If the disease is left untreated, the prognosis varies with the immune status of the individual patient and the severity of disease.

Prognosis

Prognosis (Greek: πρόγνωσις "fore-knowing, foreseeing") is a medical term for predicting the likely or expected development of a disease, including whether the signs and symptoms will improve or worsen (and how quickly) or remain stable over time; expectations of quality of life, such as the ability to carry out daily activities; the potential for complications and associated health issues; and the likelihood of survival (including life expectancy).

Scarlet fever

The improvement in prognosis can be attributed to the use of penicillin in the treatment of this disease.

Scarlet fever

"Scarlet fever, a disease of yore, is making a comeback in parts of the world".


But Trenberth’s "lack of warming at the moment" has been going on at least a decade.

Climatic Research Unit email controversy:511

Here is the quote: "The fact is that we can't account for the lack of warming at the moment and it is a travesty that we can't."

Global warming hiatus

In January 2013 James Hansen and colleagues published their updated analysis that temperatures had continued at a high level despite strong La Niña conditions, and said the "5-year mean global temperature has been flat for a decade, which we interpret as a combination of natural variability and a slowdown in the growth rate of the net climate forcing", noting "that the 10 warmest years in the record all occurred since 1998."

Hurricane Sandy

Global climate change has contributed to the higher sea surface and ocean temperatures, and a warmer and moister atmosphere, and its effects are in the range of 5 to 10%.

Kevin E. Trenberth

This was associated with a change of surface winds over the Pacific which had caused ocean heat to penetrate below 700m depth and had contributed to the apparent global warming hiatus in surface temperatures during the previous decade.

Kevin E. Trenberth

In an interview, Trenberth said, "The planet is warming", but "the warmth just isn't being manifested at the surface."


Heat is continuing to build up in the subsurface ocean.

Heat wave

The end result is a continual build-up of heat at the surface that people experience as a heat wave.

Ocean

Titan is thought to have a subsurface liquid-water ocean under the ice in addition to the hydrocarbon mix that forms atop its outer crust.

Ocean

Underneath the thick atmospheres of the planets Uranus and Neptune, it is expected that these planets are composed of oceans of hot high-density fluid mixtures of water, ammonia and other volatiles.

Ocean

Surface heat and freshwater fluxes create global density gradients that drive the thermohaline circulation part of large-scale ocean circulation.

Ocean

It plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in sea ice regulation.


Wu et al (2010) use a new method to calculate ice sheet mass balance.

Geoid

"Interannual variations of the mass balance of the Antarctica and Greenland ice sheets from GRACE".

Post-glacial rebound

"A method of combining ICESat and GRACE satellite data to constrain Antarctic mass balance".

Retreat of glaciers since 1850

The mass balance, or difference between accumulation and ablation (melting and sublimation), of a glacier is crucial to its survival.

Sea level rise

"A Reconciled Estimate of Ice-Sheet Mass Balance".

Sea level rise

A combination of satellite observations of its changing volume, flow and gravitational attraction with modelling of its surface mass balance suggests the overall mass balance of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet was relatively steady or slightly positive for much of the period 1992–2017.


"Rapid loss of ice-mass from the glaciers of Greenland and Antarctica are  cited as proof positive of global warming's onslaught.

Climate change (general concept)

Land ice sheets in both Antarctica and Greenland have been losing mass since 2002 and have seen an acceleration of ice mass loss since 2009.

Ice sheet

The Greenland, and possibly the Antarctic, ice sheets have been losing mass recently, because losses by ablation including outlet glaciers exceed accumulation of snowfall.

Retreat of glaciers since 1850

"Increasing rates of ice mass loss from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets revealed by GRACE".

Retreat of glaciers since 1850

Since 1980, a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous, so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether, and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened.

Retreat of glaciers since 1850

"Sharply increased mass loss from glaciers and ice caps in theCanadian Arctic Archipelago".


The latest  measurements involve the use of satellite gravimetry, estimating  the mass of terrain beneath by detecting slight changes in gravity as a  satellite passes overhead.

GRACE and GRACE-FO

Twin satellites took detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field anomalies from its launch in March 2002 to the end of its science mission in October 2017.

GRACE and GRACE-FO

As the twin GRACE satellites circle the globe 15 times a day, they sense minute variations in Earth's gravitational pull.

Gravimeter

Their first uses were to measure the changes in gravity from the varying densities and distribution of masses inside the earth, from temporal "tidal" variations in the shape and distribution of mass in the oceans, atmosphere and earth.

Gravity Probe B

This was to be accomplished by measuring, very precisely, tiny changes in the direction of spin of four gyroscopes contained in an Earth satellite orbiting at 650 km (400 mi) altitude, crossing directly over the poles.

Gravity of Mars

"Tests and combination of satellite determinations of the gravity field with gravimetry".


But gravity measurements of ice-mass loss are  complicated by glacial isostatic adjustments—compensation for the rise or fall of the underlying crustal material.

GRACE and GRACE-FO

Glacial isostatic adjustment—the slow rise of land masses once depressed by the weight of ice sheets from the last ice age—is chief among these signals.

Post-glacial rebound

Post-glacial rebound and isostatic depression are phases of glacial isostasy (glacial isostatic adjustment, glacioisostasy), the deformation of the Earth's crust in response to changes in ice mass distribution.

Post-glacial rebound

Mass changes of ice sheets can be monitored by measuring changes in the ice surface height, the deformation of the ground below and the changes in the gravity field over the ice sheet.

Post-glacial rebound

However, glacial isostatic adjustment of the ice sheets affect ground deformation and the gravity field today.

Post-glacial rebound

The enormous weight of this ice caused the surface of the Earth's crust to deform and warp downward, forcing the viscoelastic mantle material to flow away from the loaded region.


A new article in Nature Geoscience  describes an innovative approach employed to derive ice-mass changes  from GRACE data.

Antarctic ice sheet

A 2006 paper derived from satellite data, measuring changes in the gravity of the ice mass, suggests that the total amount of ice in Antarctica has begun decreasing in the past few years.

GRACE and GRACE-FO

"Regional acceleration in ice mass loss from Greenland and Antarctica using GRACE time-variable gravity data".

GRACE and GRACE-FO

Scientists have also detailed improved methods for using GRACE data to describe Earth's gravity field.

GRACE and GRACE-FO

GRACE data are critical in helping to determine the cause of sea level rise, whether it is the result of mass being added to the ocean - from melting glaciers, for example - or from thermal expansion of warming water or changes in salinity.

GRACE and GRACE-FO

GRACE data have provided a record of mass loss within the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica.


The report suggests significantly smaller overall  ice-mass losses than previous estimates.

Retreat of glaciers since 1850

This represents a loss of 8% of the ice field, with all glaciers experiencing significant retreat.

Retreat of glaciers since 1850

There has been significant and ongoing ice volume losses on the largest New Zealand glaciers, including the Tasman, Ivory, Classen, Mueller, Maud, Hooker, Grey, Godley, Ramsay, Murchison, Therma, Volta and Douglas Glaciers.

Retreat of glaciers since 1850

The loss in Southern Alps total ice volume from 1976–2014 is 34 percent of the total.

Retreat of glaciers since 1850

As with glaciers worldwide, those of the greater Himalayan region are experiencing a decline in mass, and researchers claim that between the early 1970s and early 2000s, there had been a 9 percent reduction in ice mass.

Retreat of glaciers since 1850

"Sharply increased mass loss from glaciers and ice caps in theCanadian Arctic Archipelago".


Though CRU neglected to provide an exact list of temperature stations, it could not have hid or tampered with data.

Climatic Research Unit email controversy:162

The MPs had seen no evidence to support claims that Jones had tampered with data or interfered with the peer-review process.

Climatic Research Unit email controversy:255

The Climatic Research Unit developed its gridded CRUTEM data set of land air temperature anomalies from instrumental temperature records held by National Meteorological Organisations around the world, often under formal or informal confidentiality agreements that restricted use of this raw data to academic purposes, and prevented it from being passed onto third parties.

Climatic Research Unit email controversy:263

On 27 July 2011 CRU announced that the raw instrumental data not already in the public domain had been released and was available for download, with the exception of Poland which was outside the area covered by the FOIA request.

Data mining

The difference between data analysis and data mining is that data analysis is used to test models and hypotheses on the dataset, e.g., analyzing the effectiveness of a marketing campaign, regardless of the amount of data; in contrast, data mining uses machine learning and statistical models to uncover clandestine or hidden patterns in a large volume of data.

Data visualization

DPA has two main objectives: To use data to provide knowledge in the most efficient manner possible (minimize noise, complexity, and unnecessary data or detail given each audience's needs and roles) To use data to provide knowledge in the most effective manner possible (provide relevant, timely and complete data to each audience member in a clear and understandable manner that conveys important meaning, is actionable and can affect understanding, behavior and decisions) With the above objectives in mind, the actual work of data presentation architecture consists of: Creating effective delivery mechanisms for each audience member depending on their role, tasks, locations and access to technology Defining important meaning (relevant knowledge) that is needed by each audience member in each context Determining the required periodicity of data updates (the currency of the data) Determining the right timing for data presentation (when and how often the user needs to see the data) Finding the right data (subject area, historical reach, breadth, level of detail, etc.)


"So  recently the media picked up on the fact that CRU deleted the raw data for this  important global temperature set long ago.

Climatic Research Unit documents

On 27 July 2011 CRU announced release of the raw instrumental data not already in the public domain, with the exception of Poland which was outside the area covered by the FOIA request.

Climatic Research Unit email controversy:125

They were already working with the Met Office to obtain permissions to release the remaining raw data.

Climatic Research Unit email controversy:256

Over 95% of the CRU climate data set had been available to the public for several years before July 2009, when the university received numerous FOI requests for raw data or details of the confidentiality agreements from Stephen McIntyre and readers of his Climate Audit blog.

Climatic Research Unit email controversy:4

The mainstream media picked up the story, as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009.


The interesting point is that it also seems each time they come across a new  dataset it is simply replaced.

Cross-validation (statistics)

The goal of cross-validation is to test the model's ability to predict new data that was not used in estimating it, in order to flag problems like overfitting or selection bias and to give an insight on how the model will generalize to an independent dataset (i.e., an unknown dataset, for instance from a real problem).

SeaLifeBase

This would mean that when a new hypothesis needs to be tested, the available data will already be there in a validated and accessible form, and there will be no need create a new dataset and then have to validate it.

They

It was gradually replaced by an Old Norse borrowing, þeir (nominative plural masculine of the demonstrative, which acted in Old Norse as a plural pronoun), until it was entirely replaced in around the 15th century in Middle English.

ZFS

A device in any vdev can be marked for removal, and ZFS will de-allocate data from it to allow it to be removed or replaced.

ZFS

A pool level snapshot (known as a "checkpoint") is available which allows rollback of operations that may affect the entire pool's structure, or which add or remove entire datasets.


Maximum warming occurs over the surface during winter while less surface warming is found in summer when heat is being used to melt sea ice.

Climate of the Arctic

In summer, the sea ice keeps the surface from warming above freezing.

Cryosphere

While snow and ice act to insulate the surface from large energy losses in winter, they also act to retard warming in the spring and summer because of the large amount of energy required to melt ice (the latent heat of fusion, 3.34 x 105 J/kg at 0 °C).

Ice age

This low precipitation allows high-latitude snowfalls to melt during the summer.

Sea ice

In the Arctic, the area of ocean covered by sea ice increases over winter from a minimum in September to a maximum in March or sometimes February, before melting over the summer.

Sea ice

As the sea ice melts, its surface area shrinks, diminishing the size of the reflective surface and therefore causing the earth to absorb more of the sun's heat.


The authors seem to have jumped right  into statistical  analysis without proposing a physical mechanism that  works.

Artificial intelligence

Newell and Simon's physical symbol system hypothesis "A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action."

Chemistry

Many physical chemists specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions.

Free will

In fact, according to the generalized interpretation of the psycho-physical parallelism, the freedom of the will must be considered a feature of conscious life that corresponds to functions of the organism that not only evade a causal mechanical description, but resist even a physical analysis carried to the extent required for an unambiguous application of the statistical laws of atomic mechanics.

Scientific method

One key point was that they realized that the quickest way to reach a result was not to continue a mathematical analysis, but to build a physical model.

Sensor-based sorting

The washability analysis is widely known in bulk material analysis, where the specific density is the physical property describing the liberation and the separation results, which is then in the form of the partition curve.


temperature under the ice is fixed at -2C.  Thus elevated winter   air temperatures

Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station

During this six-month "night", air temperatures can drop below −73 °C (−99 °F).

Climate

A subarctic climate has little precipitation, and monthly temperatures which are above 10 °C (50 °F) for one to three months of the year, with permafrost in large parts of the area due to the cold winters.

Earth

The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at Vostok Station in 1983, but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as −94.7 °C (−138.5 °F) in East Antarctica.

Precipitation

Rarely, at a temperature of around −2 °C (28 °F), snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry—triangular snowflakes.

Winter storm

They typically occur when a layer of warm air hovers over a region, but the ambient temperature a few meters above the ground is near or below 0 °C (32 °F), and the ground temperature is sub-freezing.


Whatever is driving increases in winter Arctic temperatures   is not heat coming out of the Arctic Ocean, which is covered with   insulating ice.'

Arctic Ocean

This insulation keeps the warm Atlantic Water from melting the surface ice.

Arctic Ocean

Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice that varies in extent and thickness seasonally.

Arctic Ocean

In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice.

Arctic Ocean

It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter.

Arctic ice pack

Sea ice has an important effect on the heat balance of the polar oceans, since it insulates the (relatively) warm ocean from the much colder air above, thus reducing heat loss from the oceans.


"Pollution; none of us are supporting putting substances into the  atmosphere or the waterways that might be pollutants, but carbon dioxide  is not a pollutant.

Air pollution

These dangerous pollutants are known as the criteria pollutants, and include ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead.

Air pollution

Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include: Carbon dioxide (CO 2) – Because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been described as "the leading pollutant" and "the worst climate pollutant".

Fossil fuel power station

In these modern designs, pollution from coal-fired power plants comes from the emission of gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide into the air, as well a significant volume of wastewater which may contain lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium, as well as arsenic, selenium and nitrogen compounds (nitrates and nitrites).

Fossil fuel power station

Flue gas from combustion of the fossil fuels contains carbon dioxide and water vapor, as well as pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), and, for coal-fired plants, mercury, traces of other metals, and fly ash.

Pollution

Common gaseous pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles.


If Senator Wong was really serious about her  science she would stop breathing because you inhale air that's got 385  parts per million carbon dioxide in it

Air pollution

CO 2 currently forms about 410 parts per million (ppm) of earth's atmosphere, compared to about 280 ppm in pre-industrial times, and billions of metric tons of CO 2 are emitted annually by burning of fossil fuels.

Indoor air quality

European standards limit carbon dioxide to 3,500 ppm.

Natural gas

Excluding water vapor, about half of landfill gas is methane and most of the rest is carbon dioxide, with small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, and variable trace amounts of hydrogen sulfide and siloxanes.

Respiratory system

Similarly, since the blood arriving in the alveolar capillaries has a partial pressure of CO2 of also about 6 kPa (45 mmHg), whereas that of the alveolar air is 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg), there is a net movement of carbon dioxide out of the capillaries into the alveoli.

Respiratory system

Thus at sea level, where the ambient atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa, the moistened air that flows into the lungs from the trachea consists of water vapor (6.3 kPa), nitrogen (74.0 kPa), oxygen (19.7 kPa) and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases (a total of 100 kPa).


Temperature errors in the Great Lakes region are not incorporated in any of the global mean temperature records.

Glossary of geography terms

Geostatistical algorithms are often incorporated in GIS software applications.

Glossary of geography terms

It is characterized by high annual precipitation and the absence of any significant seasonal variation in temperature.

Norway

Selected climatic data for a global set of standard stations for vegetation.

Norway

Temperature anomalies found in coastal locations are exceptional, with Røst and Værøy lacking a meteorological winter in spite of being north of the Arctic Circle.

Precipitation

As a result, the modern global record of precipitation largely depends on satellite observations.


"Global warming data apparently cooked by U.S. government-funded body  shows astounding temperature fraud with increases averaging 10 to 15  degrees Fahrenheit.

Climate change in the United States

"A projected increase of 4.05 degrees Fahrenheit in average temperature is expected by 2065, and a projected increase of 9.37 degrees Fahrenheit in average temperature can be expected by the turn of the century if nothing is done to curb emissions.

Global warming controversy

According to a 2006 paper from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, "the earth would warm by 8 degrees Celsius (14.4 degrees Fahrenheit) if humans use the entire planet's available fossil fuels by the year 2300."

Global warming controversy

"Modeling of long-term fossil fuel consumption shows 14.5-degree hike in Earth's temperature".

Global warming

Arrhenius calculated the temperature increase expected from doubling CO 2 to be around 5-6 °C.

Global warming

The 10th Emissions Gap Report issued by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) predicts that if emissions continue to increase at the same rate as they have in 2010–2020, global temperatures would rise by as much as 4° by 2100.


The tax-payer funded National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration  (NOAA) has become mired in fresh global warming data scandal involving  numbers for the Great Lakes region that substantially ramp up averages."

NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to provide understanding and improve stewardship of the environment.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:145

Feds close 600 weather stations amid criticism they're situated to report warming".

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:21

In 2013, NOAA closed 600 weather stations.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:37

NOAA data is also relevant to the issues of global warming and ozone depletion.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:67

AOML's research spans hurricanes, coastal ecosystems, oceans and human health, climate studies, global carbon systems, and ocean observations.


Soares looks at short-term trends which are swamped by natural variations.

Phenotype

Phenotypic variation (due to underlying heritable genetic variation) is a fundamental prerequisite for evolution by natural selection.

Phenotype

Without phenotypic variation, there would be no evolution by natural selection.

Species

It has been argued that this definition is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection.

Species

He established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.

Species

Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals, by natural selection from naturally occurring variation among individuals.


The long-term correlation between CO2 and temperature is well established.

Climate change (general concept)

During the glacial cycles, there was a high correlation between CO 2 concentrations and temperatures.

Global warming controversy

Correlation of CO 2 and temperature is not part of this evidence.

Global warming controversy

"Coherence established between atmospheric carbon dioxide and global temperature".

Ice core

Further research has demonstrated a reliable correlation between CO 2 levels and the temperature calculated from ice isotope data.

Paleoclimatology

There is also a close correlation between CO2 and temperature, where CO2 has a strong control over global temperatures in Earth history.


CO2 changes are closely related to temperature.

Carbon capture and storage

These three changes are closely interrelated, because Venus's extreme temperature is due to the high pressure of its dense atmosphere, and the greenhouse effect.

Climate sensitivity

Climate sensitivity is the globally averaged temperature change in response to changes in radiative forcing, which can occur, for instance, due to increased levels of carbon dioxide (CO 2).

Climate sensitivity

A related concept is the transient climate response to cumulative carbon emissions, which is the globally averaged surface temperature change per unit of CO 2 emitted.

Climate sensitivity

The sensitivity of temperature to atmospheric gasses, most notably CO 2, is often expressed in terms of the change in temperature per doubling of the concentration of the gas.

Climate sensitivity

The transient climate response (TCR) is the amount of temperature increase that might occur at the time when CO2 doubles, having increased gradually by 1% each year.


Warmer seasons or triennial phases are followed by an atmosphere that is rich in CO2, reflecting the gas solving or exsolving from water, and not photosynthesis activity.

Carbon dioxide

Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved CO 2 in the upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of CO 2 from the atmosphere.

Global warming

Higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations have led to an increase in dissolved CO2, which causes ocean acidification.

Greenhouse gas

Natural sources of carbon dioxide are more than 20 times greater than sources due to human activity, but over periods longer than a few years natural sources are closely balanced by natural sinks, mainly photosynthesis of carbon compounds by plants and marine plankton.

Greenhouse gas

This is the case for CO 2, which is reduced by photosynthesis of plants, and which, after dissolving in the oceans, reacts to form carbonic acid and bicarbonate and carbonate ions (see ocean acidification).

Water

Water also dissolves many gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide—the latter giving the fizz of carbonated beverages, sparkling wines and beers.


Claims have recently surfaced in the blogosphere that an increasing number of scientists are warning of an imminent global cooling, some even going so far as to call it a "growing consensus".

Global cooling

Scientists said that "abrupt climate change initiated by Greenland ice sheet melting is not a realistic scenario for the 21st century".

Global cooling

The current scientific consensus on climate change is that the Earth underwent global warming throughout the 20th century and continues to warm.

Global warming controversy

In the scientific literature, there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

Global warming controversy

Despite increasing consensus on the science underpinning predictions of global climate change, doubts have been expressed recently about the need to mitigate the risks posed by global climate change.

Global warming

In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.


"The climate of this planet oscillates between periods of approximately  30 years of warming followed by approximately 30 years of cooling.

Climate

Climate is the long-term average of weather, typically averaged over a period of 30 years.

Climate

Eocene

The transition from a warming climate into a cooling climate began at ~49 million years ago.

Ice age

An ice age is a long period of reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers.

Mesozoic

The climate of the Mesozoic was varied, alternating between warming and cooling periods.


Rather than 100 years of unprecedented global warming as predicted by  IPCC, the global temperatures have leveled off and we seem to be heading  for cooler weather."

Global warming

Currently, surface temperatures are rising by about 0.2 °C per decade.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:113

They judge that global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 °C over the last 100 years, broadly consistent with prediction of climate models, but also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:157

"Robust findings" of the Synthesis report include: "Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global average sea level".

Scientific consensus on climate change:150

Scientific consensus on climate change

Human-caused increases in greenhouse gases are responsible for most of the observed global average surface warming of roughly 0.8 °C (1.5 °F) over the past 140 years.

Scientific consensus on climate change:719

Scientific consensus on climate change

On the basis of available data, climate scientists are now projecting an average global temperature rise over this century of 2.0 to 4.5°C.


It’s usually taken to be the fact that as carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere increase, the 1 per cent of CO2 that’s the heavier carbon isotope ratio c13 declines in proportion.

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

The global mean CO 2 concentration is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating.

Carbon dioxide

Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

Carbon dioxide

As the concentration of carbon dioxide increases in the atmosphere, the increased uptake of carbon dioxide into the oceans is causing a measurable decrease in the pH of the oceans, which is referred to as ocean acidification.

Eocene

The start of the Eocene is marked by a brief period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope 12C.

Greenhouse gas

Measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide are currently 100 ppm higher than pre-industrial levels.


But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

Reason

The reasoning in this argument is valid, because there is no way in which the premises, 1 and 2, could be true and the conclusion, 3, be false.

Scientific consensus on climate change:395

Scientific consensus on climate change

"It is likely that increases in GHG concentrations alone would have caused more warming than observed because volcanic and anthropogenic aerosols have offset some warming that would otherwise have taken place."

Scientific consensus on climate change:47

Scientific consensus on climate change

According to this summary, the Fourth Assessment Report found that human actions are "very likely" the cause of global warming, meaning a 90% or greater probability.

Scientific consensus on climate change:678

Scientific consensus on climate change

The statement concludes with a call for "reduction in anthropogenic (human-caused) sources of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions contributing to global climate change and the conservation of CO 2- consuming photosynthesizers (i.e., plants)."

Scientific consensus on climate change:692

Scientific consensus on climate change

While ‘climate change’ can be due to natural forces or human activity, there is now substantial evidence to indicate that human activity – and specifically increased greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions – is a key factor in the pace and extent of global temperature increases.


Various independent measurements of solar activity all confirm the sun has shown a slight cooling trend since 1978.

Attribution of recent climate change:188

Attribution of recent climate change

Since 1978, output from the Sun has been measured by satellites significantly more accurately than was previously possible from the surface.

Attribution of recent climate change:189

Attribution of recent climate change

These measurements indicate that the Sun's total solar irradiance has not increased since 1978, so the warming during the past 30 years cannot be directly attributed to an increase in total solar energy reaching the Earth (see graph above, left).

Attribution of recent climate change:190

Attribution of recent climate change

In the three decades since 1978, the combination of solar and volcanic activity probably had a slight cooling influence on the climate.

Global warming

Multiple independently produced instrumental datasets confirm that the 2009–2018 decade was 0.93 ± 0.07 °C warmer than the pre-industrial baseline (1850–1900).

Solar activity and climate

In the three decades following 1978, the combination of solar and volcanic activity is estimated to have had a slight cooling influence.


There is no single continuous satellite measurement of Total Solar Irradiance (TSI).

Solar irradiance

The space-based TSI record comprises measurements from more than ten radiometers spanning three solar cycles.

Solar irradiance

The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment/Total Irradiance Measurement (SORCE/TIM) TSI values are lower than prior measurements by the Earth Radiometer Budget Experiment (ERBE) on the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS), VIRGO on the Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SoHO) and the ACRIM instruments on the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM), Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) and ACRIMSAT.

Solar irradiance

Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) is a measure of the solar power over all wavelengths per unit area incident on the Earth's upper atmosphere.

Sunlight

Total solar irradiance (TSI) – the amount of solar radiation received at the top of Earth's atmosphere – has been measured since 1978 by a series of overlapping NASA and ESA satellite experiments to be 1.365 kilowatts per square meter (kW/m²).

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite

The ACRIM2 instrument on the UARS satellite measured the total solar irradiance (TSI), the total solar radiant energy reaching Earth, continuing the climate change database begun in 1980 by the ACRIM1 experiment on the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM).


The two most cited composites are PMOD and ACRIM.

Catalan pseudoprime

In mathematics, a Catalan pseudoprime is an odd composite number n satisfying the congruence ( − 1 ) n − 1 2 ⋅ C n − 1 2 ≡ 2 ( mod n ) , {\displaystyle (-1)^{\frac {n-1}{2}}\cdot C_{\frac {n-1}{2}}\equiv 2{\pmod {n}},} where Cm denotes the m-th Catalan number.

Lucas pseudoprime

A Pell pseudoprime may be defined as a composite number n for which equation (1) above is true with P = 2 and Q = −1; the sequence Un then being the Pell sequence.

Lucas pseudoprime

A Fibonacci pseudoprime is often defined as a composite number n not divisible by 5 for which congruence (1) holds with P = 1 and Q = −1 (but n is ).

Solar irradiance

In 2014 a new ACRIM composite was developed using the updated ACRIM3 record.

Solar irradiance

Examples include the issue of the irradiance increase between cycle minima in 1986 and 1996, evident only in the ACRIM composite (and not the model) and the low irradiance levels in the PMOD composite during the 2008 minimum.


In particular, PMOD alters the data from the Nimbus7/ERB record from 1989 to 1991.

Chinese remainder theorem

However, the two other versions make sense over a principal ideal domain R: it suffices to replace "integer" by "element of the domain" and Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } by R. These two versions of the theorem are true in this context, because the proofs (except for the first existence proof), are based on Euclid's lemma and Bézout's identity, which are true over every principal domain.

International Standard Book Number

when typing it or writing it down) are a single altered digit or the transposition of adjacent digits.

Legendre symbol

The Legendre symbol was introduced by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1798 in the course of his attempts at proving the law of quadratic reciprocity.

Modular multiplicative inverse

In mathematics, in particular the area of number theory, a modular multiplicative inverse of an integer a is an integer x such that the product ax is congruent to 1 with respect to the modulus m. In the standard notation of modular arithmetic this congruence is written as a x ≡ 1 ( mod m ) , {\displaystyle ax\equiv 1{\pmod {m}},} which is the shorthand way of writing the statement that m divides (evenly) the quantity ax − 1, or, put another way, the remainder after dividing ax by the integer m is 1.

Solar irradiance

These arise from the fact that ACRIM uses the original TSI results published by the satellite experiment teams while PMOD significantly modifies some results to conform them to specific TSI proxy models.


Even if the warming were as big as the IPCC imagines, it would not be as dangerous as Mr. Brown suggests.

Climate change and agriculture

His study assumes that no efforts are made to reduce anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, leading to global warming of 3.3 °C above the pre-industrial level.

Global warming controversy

Orrell says that the range of future increase in temperature suggested by the IPCC rather represents a social consensus in the climate community, but adds "we are having a dangerous effect on the climate".

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

It is likely that greenhouse gases would have caused more warming than we have observed if not for the cooling effects of volcanic and human-caused aerosols.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:127

Since the mid-20th century, most of the observed warming is "likely" (greater than 66% probability, based on expert judgement) due to human activities.

Scientific consensus on climate change:459

Scientific consensus on climate change

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said the likelihood was 90 percent to 99 percent that emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, spewed from tailpipes and smokestacks, were the dominant cause of the observed warming of the last 50 years.


Cooks ’97% consensus’ disproven by a new peer

Scientific consensus on climate change:10

Scientific consensus on climate change

Of these, 97% agree, explicitly or implicitly, that global warming is happening and is human-caused.

Scientific consensus on climate change:294

Scientific consensus on climate change

Over 99.99% of climate scientists did not reject AGW in their peer-reviewed research.

Scientific consensus on climate change:295

Scientific consensus on climate change

James Lawrence Powell reported 2017 that using rejection as the criterion of consensus, five surveys of the peer-reviewed literature from 1991 to 2015, including several of those above, combine to 54,195 articles with an average consensus of 99.94%.

Scientific consensus on climate change:296

Scientific consensus on climate change

In November 2019, his survey of over 11,600 peer-reviewed articles published in the first seven months of 2019 showed that the consensus had reached 100%.

Scientific consensus on climate change:3

Scientific consensus on climate change

A November 2019 study showed that the consensus among research scientists had grown to 100%, based on a review of 11,602 peer-reviewed articles published in the first 7 months of 2019.


When CO2 emissions are compared directly to CO2 levels, there is a strong correlation in the long term trends.

Global warming controversy

However, the Stern report, like many other reports, notes the past correlation between CO 2 emissions and economic growth and then extrapolates using a "business as usual" scenario to predict GDP growth and hence CO 2 levels, concluding that: Increasing scarcity of fossil fuels alone will not stop emissions growth in time.

Greenhouse gas

Both CO 2 and CH 4 vary between glacial and interglacial phases, and concentrations of these gases correlate strongly with temperature.

Greenhouse gas

Direct data does not exist for periods earlier than those represented in the ice core record, a record that indicates CO 2 mole fractions stayed within a range of 180 ppm to 280 ppm throughout the last 800,000 years, until the increase of the last 250 years.

Greenhouse gas

The sharp acceleration in CO 2 emissions since 2000 to more than a 3% increase per year (more than 2 ppm per year) from 1.1% per year during the 1990s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations.

Ice core

Further research has demonstrated a reliable correlation between CO 2 levels and the temperature calculated from ice isotope data.


Over the three years from 1979 to 1982 when CO2 emissions were decreasing due to the rapid increase in the price of oil that drastically reduced consumption, there was no change in the rate of increase in atmospheric concentration of CO2 proving that humans were not the primary source for the increase in concentration.'

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:140

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

While CO 2 absorption and release is always happening as a result of natural processes, the recent rise in CO 2 levels in the atmosphere is known to be mainly due to human (anthropogenic) activity.

Carbon dioxide

Combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation have caused the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide to increase by about 43% since the beginning of the age of industrialization.

Greenhouse gas

Between the period 1970 to 2004, greenhouse gas emissions (measured in CO 2-equivalent) increased at an average rate of 1.6% per year, with CO 2 emissions from the use of fossil fuels growing at a rate of 1.9% per year.

Scientific consensus on climate change:77

Scientific consensus on climate change

Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), and secondarily the clearing of land, have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide, methane, and other heat-trapping ("greenhouse") gases in the atmosphere...There is international scientific consensus that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities.

World energy consumption

After the oil shocks of 1973 and 1979, during which the price of oil increased from 5 to 45 US dollars per barrel, there was a shift away from oil.


The contribution of waste heat to the global climate is 0.028 W/m2.

Waste heat

In cities this source typically contributes 15–50 W/m2 to the local heat balance, and several hundred W/m2 in the center of large cities in cold climates and industrial areas."

Waste heat

Anthropogenic heat is a much smaller contributor to global warming than are greenhouse gases.

Waste heat

For example, waste heat flux was +0.39 and +0.68 W/m2 for the continental United States and western Europe, respectively) globally it accounted for only 1% of the energy flux created by anthropogenic greenhouse gases.

Waste heat

Global forcing from waste heat was 0.028 W/m2 in 2005.

Waste heat

Equilibrium climate experiments show statistically significant continental-scale surface warming (0.4–0.9 °C) produced by one 2100 AHF scenario, but not by current or 2040 estimates.


"Global warming is mostly due to heat production by human industry since the 1800s, from nuclear power and fossil fuels, better termed hydrocarbons, – coal, oil, natural gas.

Greenhouse gas

At present, the primary source of CO 2 emissions is the burning of coal, natural gas, and petroleum for electricity and heat.

Greenhouse gas

The vast majority of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions come from combustion of fossil fuels, principally coal, oil, and natural gas, with additional contributions coming from deforestation, changes in land use, soil erosion and agriculture (including livestock).

Hydrocarbon

Burning hydrocarbons as fuel, producing carbon dioxide and water, is a major contributor to anthropogenic global warming.

Natural gas

Natural gas (also called fossil gas) is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes, and sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, or helium.

Natural gas

Natural gas is a non-renewable hydrocarbon used as a source of energy for heating, cooking, and electricity generation.


Also, it's not yet clear whether changes in stratospheric water vapor are caused by a climate feedback or internal variability

Climate change (general concept)

Natural changes in the climate system result in internal "climate variability".

Cloud

Broadly speaking, if clouds, especially low clouds, increase in a warmer climate, the resultant cooling effect leads to a negative feedback in climate response to increased greenhouse gases.

Global warming

Models not only project different future temperature with different emissions of greenhouse gases, but also do not fully agree on the strength of different feedbacks on climate sensitivity and the amount of inertia of the system.

Global warming

Attributing detected temperature changes and extreme events to human-caused increases in greenhouse gases requires scientists to rule out known internal climate variability and natural external forcings.

Global warming

Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use."


According to the study, as carbon levels have risen, the cold air at high altitudes over the tropics has actually grown colder.

Carbon dioxide

Less energy reaches the upper atmosphere, which is therefore cooler because of this absorption.

Carbon dioxide

Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

Eocene

The models, while accurately predicting the tropics, tend to produce significantly cooler temperatures of up to 20 °C (36 °F) colder than the actual determined temperature at the poles.

Global warming

1950s military research found less saturation of the greenhouse effect at high altitudes.

Troposphere

The tropopause is an inversion layer, where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness.


The lower temperatures at this "coldest point" have caused global water vapor levels to drop, even as carbon levels rise.

Atmosphere of Venus

In contrast, the nightside Venusian thermosphere is the coldest place on Venus with temperature as low as 100 K (−173 °C).

Eocene

These isotope changes occurred due to the release of carbon from the ocean into the atmosphere that led to a temperature increase of 4-8 °C (7-14 °F) at the surface of the ocean.

Snowball Earth

"High levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide necessary for the termination of global glaciation".

Troposphere

At the equator, tropospheric temperatures decrease from an average of 20 °C (68-degree Fahrenheit) at sea level to about −70 to −75 °C (-94 to -103-degree Fahrenheit) at the tropopause.

Water on Mars

At this location, the highest temperature never reached the freezing point of water (0 °C (32 °F; 273 K)), too cold for pure liquid water to exist on the surface.


Water vapor helps trap heat, and is a far the strongest of the major greenhouse gases, contributing 36–72 percent of the greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse effect

From 1859 onwards, he showed that the effect was due to a very small proportion of the atmosphere, with the main gases having no effect, and was largely due to water vapour, though small percentages of hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide had a significant effect.

Greenhouse effect

However radiative energy losses become increasingly important higher in the atmosphere, largely because of the decreasing concentration of water vapor, an important greenhouse gas.

Greenhouse effect

By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on Earth the four major gases are: water vapor, 36–70% carbon dioxide, 9–26% methane, 4–9% ozone, 3–7% It is not possible to assign a specific percentage to each gas because the absorption and emission bands of the gases overlap (hence the ranges given above).

Greenhouse gas

Water vapor accounts for the largest percentage of the greenhouse effect, between 36% and 66% for clear sky conditions and between 66% and 85% when including clouds.

Water vapor

Water vapor is the most potent greenhouse gas owing to the presence of the hydroxyl bond which strongly absorbs in the infra-red region of the light spectrum.


Thus rather than a "doomsday" cycle of runaway warming, Mother Earth appears surprisingly tolerant of carbon, decreasing atmospheric levels of water vapor -- a more effective greenhouse gas -- to compensate.

Greenhouse gas

Because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, this results in further warming and so is a "positive feedback" that amplifies the original warming.

Greenhouse gas

Eventually other earth processes offset these positive feedbacks, stabilizing the global temperature at a new equilibrium and preventing the loss of Earth's water through a Venus-like runaway greenhouse effect.

Runaway greenhouse effect

An increase in temperature from greenhouse gases leading to increased water vapor (which is itself a greenhouse gas) causing further warming is a positive feedback, but not a runaway effect, on Earth.

Runaway greenhouse effect

A planet's outgoing longwave radiation is limited by this evaporated water, which is an effective greenhouse gas and blocks additional infrared radiation as it accumulates in the atmosphere.

Water

Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere provide a temperature buffer (greenhouse effect) which helps maintain a relatively steady surface temperature.


Statistical analysis of the rate of warming over different periods find that warming from 1970 to 2001 is greater than the warming from both 1860 to 1880 and 1910 to 1940.

Attribution of recent climate change

Over the past five decades there has been a global warming of approximately 0.65 °C (1.17 °F) at the Earth's surface (see historical temperature record).

Effects of global warming

It is a major aspect of climate change, and has been demonstrated by the instrumental temperature record which shows global warming of around 1 °C since the pre-industrial period, although the bulk of this (0.9°C) has occurred since 1970.

Global warming

Multiple independently produced instrumental datasets confirm that the 2009–2018 decade was 0.93 ± 0.07 °C warmer than the pre-industrial baseline (1850–1900).

Retreat of glaciers since 1850

The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the time before and after.

Urban heat island

For example, Ross McKitrick and Patrick J. Michaels conducted a statistical study of surface-temperature data regressed against socioeconomic indicators, and concluded that about half of the observed warming trend (for 1979–2002) could be accounted for by the residual UHI effects in the corrected temperature data set they studied—which had already been processed to remove the (modeled) UHI contribution.


Despite the logarithmic relationship between CO2 and surface temperatures, atmospheric CO2 levels are rising so fast that unless we dramatically decrease our emissions, global warming will accelerate over the 21st Century.

Carbon dioxide

Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

Carbon dioxide

Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions – primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation – have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere, leading to global warming.

Global warming

Between 1993 and 2017, the global mean sea level rose on average by 3.1 ± 0.3 mm per year, with an acceleration detected as well.

Global warming

Currently, surface temperatures are rising by about 0.2 °C per decade.

Global warming

To keep warming below 2 °C, more stringent emission reductions in the near-term would allow for less rapid reductions after 2030.


As a result, the planet as a whole is becoming less reflective and absorbing more sunlight, which is accelerating global warming.

Global warming

If cloud cover increases, more sunlight will be reflected back into space, cooling the planet.

Global warming

This effect results in the increased absorption of radiation that accelerates melting."

Global warming

For instance, the change from a dark forest to grassland makes the surface lighter, causing it to reflect more sunlight.

Global warming

In the tropics the net effect is to produce a significant warming, while at latitudes closer to the poles a loss of albedo leads to an overall cooling effect.

Global warming

Not only does this increase the absorption of sunlight, it also increases melting and sea level rise.


While preventing global warming is relatively cheap, economists can't even accurately estimate the accelerating costs of climate damages if we continue with business-as-usual.

Carbon tax

Economists generally argue that carbon taxes are the most efficient and effective way to curb climate change, with the least adverse effects on the economy.

Economics of global warming

No models suggest that the optimal policy is to do nothing, i.e., allow "business-as-usual" emissions.

Effects of global warming

Researchers have warned that current economic modeling may seriously underestimate the impact of potentially catastrophic climate change and point to the need for new models that give a more accurate picture of potential damages.

Stern Review

Economists have different views over the cost estimates of climate change mitigation given in the Review.

Stern Review

Some economists have argued that the Review overestimates the present value of the costs of climate change, and underestimates the costs of emission reduction.


Yet the cost of doing something will likely be higher than 6 per cent of GDP" (Bjorn Lomborg)

Bjørn Lomborg

He argues that "... the cost and benefits of the proposed measures against global warming.

Stern Review

'Central estimates of the annual costs of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550ppm CO2e are around 1% of global GDP, if we start to take strong action now.

United Kingdom

This would take us to 9.4 per cent of GDP spent on health ie around EU average.

United Kingdom

The UK service sector makes up around 79 per cent of GDP.

United Kingdom

The UK spends around 8.4 per cent of its gross domestic product on healthcare, which is 0.5 percentage points below the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development average and about one percentage point below the average of the European Union.


The measurements of the amount of CO2 made at the Mauna Loa Observatory are accurate and uncontaminated by any emissions from the volcano.

Mauna Loa Observatory

Since 1958, initially under the direction of Charles Keeling, followed by his son Ralph and later Elmer Robinson, Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO) has been monitoring and collecting data relating to atmospheric change, and is known especially for the continuous monitoring of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), which is sometimes referred to as the Keeling Curve.

Mauna Loa Observatory

The contamination from local volcanic sources is sometimes detected at the observatory, and is then removed from the background data.

Mauna Loa Observatory

According to the NOAA, Mauna Loa is the world's oldest continuous CO2 monitoring station, and the world's primary benchmark site for measurement of the gas.

Mauna Loa Observatory

The latest observation of CO2 concentrations from MLO can be found at web sites along with data from other sites and trends at Mauna Loa.

Mauna Loa

Measurements are adjusted to account for local outgassing of CO2 from the volcano.


'Mauna Loa has been producing a readout which supports Manning's predetermined goal by showing steady growth in atmospheric CO2 concentrations since 1959.

Global warming

In 2013, CO2 readings taken at the world's primary benchmark site in Mauna Loa surpassing 400 ppm for the first time.

Greenhouse effect

Measurements of CO 2 from the Mauna Loa observatory show that concentrations have increased from about 313 parts per million (ppm) in 1960, passing the 400 ppm milestone on May 9, 2013.

Keeling Curve

The measurements collected at Mauna Loa Observatory show a steady increase in mean atmospheric CO 2 concentration from 313 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in March 1958 to 406 ppmv in November 2018, with an increase of ~2 ppmv CO 2 per year.

Mauna Loa Observatory

Mauna Loa Observatory


The trend in CO2 at Mauna Loa is practically identical to the global trend because CO2 mixes well throughout the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:246

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

"Up-to-date weekly average CO 2 at Mauna Loa".

Carbon dioxide

Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

Ecosystem ecology

Figure 4 shows seasonal and annual changes in CO2 concentration measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii from 1987 to 1990.

Greenhouse gas

An example is the mixing of atmospheric gases into the oceans.

Greenhouse gas

This figure accounts for CO 2 molecules being removed from the atmosphere by mixing into the ocean, photosynthesis, and other processes.


The influence of the volcano is easily spotted and removed, together with other even more important spurious influences.

Kīlauea

Kīlauea's bulk affects local climate conditions through the influence of trade winds coming predominantly from the northeast, which, when squeezed upwards by the volcano's height, result in a moister windward side and a comparatively arid leeward flank.

Level Mountain

This tremendous variation in the erupted magmas and influence of adjacent vents gave rise to a high and volumnous complex bimodal stratovolcano centrally located atop the shield.

Ovid

In his treatment of elegy, scholars have traced the influence of rhetorical education in his enumeration, in his effects of surprise, and in his transitional devices.

Socompa

Groundwater is warmer and richer in CO 2 the closer to Socompa it is pumped, also suggesting that volcanic gas fluxes still occur at the volcano and that the volcano influences groundwater systems.

Under the Volcano

The influence of Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus runs throughout the novel, and references to Charles Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du mal, William Shakespeare's tragedies, and Dante's Divine Comedy enrich the novel's meaning.


Venus is not hot because of a runaway greenhouse.

Carl Sagan

He also perceived global warming as a growing, man-made danger and likened it to the natural development of Venus into a hot, life-hostile planet through a kind of runaway greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse effect

The planet Venus experienced runaway greenhouse effect, resulting in an atmosphere which is 96% carbon dioxide, with surface atmospheric pressure roughly the same as found 900 m (3,000 ft) underwater on Earth.

Runaway greenhouse effect

Venus is sufficiently strongly heated by the Sun that water vapor can rise much higher in the atmosphere and be split into hydrogen and oxygen by ultraviolet light.

Venus

It may have had water oceans in the past, but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect.

Venus

The CO 2-rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect in the Solar System, creating surface temperatures of at least 735 K (462 °C; 864 °F).


"The solar system oscillates with a 60-year cycle due to the Jupiter/Saturn three-synodic cycle and to a Jupiter/Saturn beat tidal cycle...

Jupiter trojan

This occurred when the period of the trojans' libration about their Lagrangian point had a 3:1 ratio to the period at which the position where Jupiter passes Saturn circulated relative to its perihelion.

Orbital resonance

As mentioned above, Gliese 876 e, b and c are in a Laplace resonance, with a 4:2:1 ratio of periods (124.3, 61.1 and 30.0 days).

Saturn

"Modeling the 5 : 2 Mean-Motion Resonance in the Jupiter-Saturn Planetary System".

Tibetan calendar

From the 12th century onwards, we observe the usage of two sixty-year cycles.

Year

The Galactic year is the time it takes Earth's Solar System to revolve once around the galactic center.


About 60% of the warming observed from 1970 to 2000 was very likely caused by the above natural 60-year climatic cycle during its warming phase" (Loehle and Scafetta)

Global warming

Before the Industrial Revolution, naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases caused the air near the surface to be warmer by about 33 °C (59 °F) than it would be in their absence.

Holocene

"Centennial-scale climate cooling with a sudden event around 8,200 years ago".

Holocene

This period of warmth ended about 5,500 years ago with the descent into the Neoglacial and concomitant Neopluvial.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:190

It is extremely likely (95-100% probability) that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951-2010.

Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum

These can be defined as geologically brief (<200,000 year) events characterized by rapid global warming, major changes in the environment, and massive carbon addition.