There seems to be evidence for a link between solar activity and water levels.

Aeolis quadrangle

"High Concentrations of Silica Indicate Considerable Water Activity on Mars – SpaceRef".

Gale (crater)

On November 4, 2018, geologists presented evidence, based on studies in Gale by the Curiosity rover, that there was plenty of water on early Mars.

Ice age

In 2009, further evidence was provided that changes in solar insolation provide the initial trigger for the earth to warm after an Ice Age, with secondary factors like increases in greenhouse gases accounting for the magnitude of the change.

Ice age

There is considerable evidence that over the very recent period of the last 100–1000 years, the sharp increases in human activity, especially the burning of fossil fuels, has caused the parallel sharp and accelerating increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases which trap the sun's heat.

Lakes on Mars

Eight times as much deuterium was inferred at the polar deposits of Mars than exists on Earth (VSMOW), suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water.


However, more direct comparisons between solar activity and global temperature finds that  as the sun grew hotter or cooler, Earth's climate followed it with a 10 year lag - presumably due to the dampening effect of the ocean.

Atlantic Ocean

This heat uptake provides a time-lag for climate change but it also results in a thermal expansion of the oceans which contribute to sea-level rise.

Attribution of recent climate change:236

Attribution of recent climate change

(2009) found that the evidence showed that connections between solar variation and climate were more likely to be mediated by direct variation of insolation rather than cosmic rays, and concluded: "Hence within our assumptions, the effect of varying solar activity, either by direct solar irradiance or by varying cosmic ray rates, must be less than 0.07 °C since 1956, i.e.

Global warming

Another line of evidence for the warming not being due to the Sun is how temperature changes differ at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere.

Global warming

Although the most common measure of global warming is the increase in the near-surface atmospheric temperature, over 90% of the additional energy stored in the climate system over the last 50 years has warmed ocean water.

Sun

However, the geological record demonstrates that Earth has remained at a fairly constant temperature throughout its history, and that the young Earth was somewhat warmer than it is today.


Also found was that the correlation between solar activity and global temperatures ended around 1975, hence recent warming must have some other cause than solar variations.

Global warming

In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

Solar activity and climate

Neither direct measurements nor proxies of solar variation correlate well with Earth global temperature, particularly in recent decades when both quantities are best known.

Solar activity and climate

Scafetta and West correlated solar proxy data and lower tropospheric temperature for the preindustrial era, before significant anthropogenic greenhouse forcing, suggesting that TSI variations may have contributed 50% of the warming observed between 1900 and 2000 (although they conclude "our estimates about the solar effect on climate might be overestimated and should be considered as an upper limit.")

Solar activity and climate

In 1991, Friis-Christensen and Lassen claimed a strong correlation of the length of the solar cycle with northern hemispheric temperature changes.

Sun

Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower-than-average global temperatures.


A South African paper has found a 21 year cycle synchronous with the solar cycle (Alexander 2007).

Ice age

The Milankovitch cycles are a set of cyclic variations in characteristics of the Earth's orbit around the Sun.

Leap year

A leap year (also known as an intercalary year or bissextile year) is a calendar year containing an additional day (or, in the case of lunisolar calendars, a month) added to keep the calendar year synchronized with the astronomical or seasonal year.

Leap year

The Bahá'í calendar is a solar calendar composed of 19 months of 19 days each (361 days).

Little Ice Age

Orbital forcing from cycles in the earth's orbit around the sun has, for the past 2,000 years, caused a long-term northern hemisphere cooling trend that continued through the Middle Ages and the Little Ice Age.

Moon

One comprises what we have called "Saros Cycle Texts", which give the months of eclipse possibilities arranged in consistent cycles of 223 months (or 18 years).


Some of the regions in which  GRACE claims ice loss in East Antarctica average colder than -30°C  during the summer, and never, ever get above freezing.

Antarctica

East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation.

Antarctica

The temperature in Antarctica has reached −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) (or even −94.7 °C (−135.8 °F) as measured from space), though the average for the third quarter (the coldest part of the year) is −63 °C (−81 °F).

East Antarctic Ice Sheet

The EAIS is the driest, windiest, and coldest place on Earth, with temperatures reported down to nearly -100°C.

East Antarctica

East Antarctica is generally higher than West Antarctica, and is considered the coldest place on Earth.

Global warming in Antarctica

East Antarctica appears to have experienced a net gain of a relatively small amount of ice during the 25-years although uncertainty is greater due to subsidence of the underlying bedrock.


Unlike the simple example of positive feedback we learned in high school, the increase from every round of feedback gets smaller and smaller, in the case of the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Climate change feedback

Since water vapor is a greenhouse gas, the increase in water vapor content makes the atmosphere warm further; this warming causes the atmosphere to hold still more water vapor (a positive feedback), and so on until other processes stop the feedback loop.

Climate change feedback

Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it.

Climate change feedback

This releases more stored carbon into the atmosphere than the carbon cycle can naturally re-absorb, as well as reducing the overall forest area on the planet, creating a positive feedback loop.

Negative feedback

In contrast, positive feedback is feedback in which the system responds so as to increase the magnitude of any particular perturbation, resulting in amplification of the original signal instead of stabilization.

Positive feedback

That is, the effects of a perturbation on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation.


Consequently, CO2 levels at around 1,000 to 2,300 ppm were actually low enough to promote glaciation in the southern continent of Gondwana.

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

Concentrations of CO 2 in the atmosphere were as high as 4,000 parts per million (ppm, on a molar basis) during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years.

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

Decreasing CO 2 concentration, with a tipping point of 600 ppm, was the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation.

Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide content in fresh air (averaged between sea-level and 10 kPa level, i.e., about 30 km (19 mi) altitude) varies between 0.036% (360 ppm) and 0.041% (410 ppm), depending on the location.

Gondwana

However, strong evidence exists of glaciation during the Carboniferous to Permian time, especially in South Africa.

Supercontinent

During the late Ordovician (~458.4 Ma), the particular configuration of Gondwana may have allowed for glaciation and high CO2 levels to occur at the same time.


Since rock weathering reduces atmospheric CO2, this again reinforces the scientific fact that CO2 is a strong driver of climate.

Climate change denial

There is no convincing scientific evidence that human release of carbon dioxide, methane, or other greenhouse gases is causing or will, in the foreseeable future, cause catastrophic heating of the Earth's atmosphere and disruption of the Earth's climate.

Climate change feedback

The primary driver of this is the ocean, which absorbs anthropogenic CO2 via the so-called solubility pump.

Climate change feedback

With current global warming, weathering is increasing, demonstrating significant feedbacks between climate and Earth surface.

Global warming

It is a major aspect of climate change and has been demonstrated by direct temperature measurements and by measurements of various effects of the warming.

Global warming

Climate change is more accurate scientifically to describe the various effects of greenhouse gases on the world because it includes extreme weather, storms and changes in rainfall patterns, ocean acidification and sea level.".


Clearly, other factors besides atmospheric carbon influence earth temperatures and global warming."

Carbon cycle

It is one of the most important determinants of the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, and thus of global temperatures.

Climate

Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling.

Global warming

It is expected that most ecosystems will be affected by higher atmospheric CO2 levels and higher global temperatures.

Global warming

In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

Greenhouse gas

If this energy balance is shifted, Earth's surface becomes warmer or cooler, leading to a variety of changes in global climate.


Hocker is claiming that his model shows that the long-term upward trend in CO2 is explained by temperature, when his methods actually removed the long-term trend.

Climate change (general concept)

Climate change refers to a broad range of global phenomena ...[which] include the increased temperature trends described by global warming."

Climate

These models predict an upward trend in the global mean surface temperature, with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

General circulation model

Any imbalance results in a change in temperature.

General circulation model

These models project an upward trend in the surface temperature record, as well as a more rapid increase in temperature at higher altitudes.

Global warming

In 1896, he published the first climate model of its kind, showing that halving of CO 2 could have produced the drop in temperature initiating the ice age.


Thousands of coral atolls have "drowned" in the past when they were unable to grow fast enough to maintain a presence at sea level

Kiribati

However, if the increase in sea level occurs at a rate faster than coral growth, or if polyp activity is damaged by ocean acidification, then the resilience of the atolls and reef islands is less certain.

Maldives

More than 80 per cent of the country's land is composed of coral islands which rise less than one metre above sea level.

Maldives

As a result, the Maldives are at high risk of being submerged due to rising sea levels.

Micronesia

When the volcano sinks back down into the sea, the coral continues to grow, keeping the reef at or above water level.

Tuvalu

Mean sea-level rise is projected to continue (very high confidence).


There are many lines of evidence which clearly show that the atmospheric CO2 increase is caused by humans.

Attribution of recent climate change

The first line of evidence is based on a physical understanding of how greenhouse gases trap heat, how the climate system responds to increases in greenhouse gases, and how other human and natural factors influence climate.

Carbon dioxide

Human activities have caused CO 2 to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years.

Global warming

Scientific consensus on climate change:115

Scientific consensus on climate change

The spatial and temporal fingerprint of warming can be traced to increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, which are a direct result of burning fossil fuels, broad-scale deforestation and other human activity.

Scientific consensus on climate change:130

Scientific consensus on climate change

The introduction includes this statement: There is strong evidence that the warming of the Earth over the last half-century has been caused largely by human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use, including agriculture and deforestation.


The clearest of these is simple accounting - humans are emitting CO2 at a rate twice as fast as the atmospheric increase (natural sinks are absorbing the other half).

Carbon dioxide

The oceans act as an enormous carbon sink, and have taken up about a third of CO 2 emitted by human activity.

Carbon sink

Presently, oceans are CO2 sinks, and represent the largest active carbon sink on Earth, absorbing more than a quarter of the carbon dioxide that humans put into the air.

Fossil fuel

It is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year.

Greenhouse gas

The annual airborne fraction is the ratio of the atmospheric increase in a given year to that year's total emissions.

Greenhouse gas

This increase has occurred despite the uptake of more than half of the emissions by various natural "sinks" involved in the carbon cycle.


There is no question whatsoever that the CO2 increase is human-caused.

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere:140

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

While CO 2 absorption and release is always happening as a result of natural processes, the recent rise in CO 2 levels in the atmosphere is known to be mainly due to human (anthropogenic) activity.

Carbon dioxide

Greenhouse gas

It is likely that anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) warming, such as that due to elevated greenhouse gas levels, has had a discernible influence on many physical and biological systems.

Greenhouse gas

Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) emissions of CO 2 from fossil fuel use are a major cause of global warming, and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human-induced climate change.

Greenhouse gas

The sharp acceleration in CO 2 emissions since 2000 to more than a 3% increase per year (more than 2 ppm per year) from 1.1% per year during the 1990s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations.


that atmospheric CO2 increase that we observe is a product of temperature  increase, and not the other way around, meaning it is a product of  natural variation...

Carbon dioxide

Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

Eocene

These isotope changes occurred due to the release of carbon from the ocean into the atmosphere that led to a temperature increase of 4-8 °C (7-14 °F) at the surface of the ocean.

Global warming

But, more accurately, global warming is the mainly human-caused increase in global surface temperatures and its projected continuation, while climate change includes both global warming and its effects, such as changes in precipitation.

Greenhouse effect

The result, however, is an increase in temperature in both cases.

Greenhouse gas

During the late 20th century, a scientific consensus evolved that increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause a substantial rise in global temperatures and changes to other parts of the climate system, with consequences for the environment and for human health.


Once natural influences, in particular the impact of El Niño and La Niña, are removed from the recent termperature record, there is no evidence of a significant change in the human contribution to climate change.

Climate change (general concept)

Climate change means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.

El Niño

The ENSO cycle, including both El Niño and La Niña, causes global changes in temperature and rainfall.

Global warming

Scientists have determined that the major factors causing the current climate change are greenhouse gases, land use changes, and aerosols and soot.

Scientific consensus on climate change

The introduction includes this statement: There is strong evidence that the warming of the Earth over the last half-century has been caused largely by human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use, including agriculture and deforestation.

Scientific consensus on climate change:692

Scientific consensus on climate change

While ‘climate change’ can be due to natural forces or human activity, there is now substantial evidence to indicate that human activity – and specifically increased greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions – is a key factor in the pace and extent of global temperature increases.


"...there has been no increase in the global average surface temperature for the past 16 years" (Judith Curry and David Rose)

Global warming

Between 1993 and 2017, the global mean sea level rose on average by 3.1 ± 0.3 mm per year, with an acceleration detected as well.

Global warming

Currently, surface temperatures are rising by about 0.2 °C per decade.

Paleocene

In the Paleocene, with a global average temperature of about 24–25 °C (75–77 °F), compared to 14 °C (57 °F) in more recent times, the Earth had a greenhouse climate without permanent ice sheets at the poles, like the preceding Mesozoic.

Paleocene

The Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum was an approximate 200,000 year long event where the global average temperature rose by some 5 to 8 °C (9 to 14 °F), and mid-latitude and polar areas may have exceeded modern tropical temperatures of 24–29 °C (75–84 °F).

Paleocene

For comparison, the average global temperature for the period between 1951 and 1980 was 14 °C (57 °F).


"The observed data show that CFCs conspiring with cosmic rays most likely caused both the Antarctic ozone hole and global warming...

Antarctica

There is evidence from one study that Antarctica is warming as a result of human carbon dioxide emissions, but this remains ambiguous.

Chlorofluorocarbon

"Ozone hole-forming chemical emissions increasing and mysterious source in East Asia may be responsible".

Cosmic ray

"Sun's Shifts May Cause Global Warming".

Cosmic ray

"No, a new study does not show cosmic-rays are connected to global warming".

The Great Global Warming Swindle

The posited mechanism involves cosmic rays as well as heat from the sun aiding cloud formation.


Correspondingly, the global surface temperature has also dropped."

Deccan Traps

Data points to an average drop in temperature of about 2 °C (3.6 °F) in this period.

Eocene

These isotope changes occurred due to the release of carbon from the ocean into the atmosphere that led to a temperature increase of 4-8 °C (7-14 °F) at the surface of the ocean.

Sun

At the photosphere, the temperature has dropped to 5,700 K and the density to only 0.2 g/m3 (about 1/6,000 the density of air at sea level).

Sun

Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower-than-average global temperatures.

Tropical cyclone

All these effects can combine to produce a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few days.


Models and direct observations find that CFCs only contribute a fraction of the warming supplied by other greenhouse gases.

Carbon dioxide

Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.

Chlorofluorocarbon

The strength of CFC absorption bands and the unique susceptibility of the atmosphere at wavelengths where CFCs (indeed all covalent fluorine compounds) absorb creates a “super” greenhouse effect from CFCs and other unreactive fluorine-containing gases such as perfluorocarbons, HFCs, HCFCs, bromofluorocarbons, SF6, and NF3.

Greenhouse gas

The seven sources of CO 2 from fossil fuel combustion are (with percentage contributions for 2000–2004): Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide (N 2O) and three groups of fluorinated gases (sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs)) are the major anthropogenic greenhouse gases, and are regulated under the Kyoto Protocol international treaty, which came into force in 2005.

Greenhouse gas

Although CFCs are greenhouse gases, they are regulated by the Montreal Protocol, which was motivated by CFCs' contribution to ozone depletion rather than by their contribution to global warming.

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

The report shows in detail the individual warming contributions (positive forcing) of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, halocarbons, other human warming factors, and the warming effects of changes in solar activity.


This increases confidence in other peer-reviewed research predicting sea level rise of 80cm to 2 metres by 2100.

Sea level rise

However, Greg Holland from the National Center for Atmospheric Research, who reviewed the study, noted: “There is no doubt that the sea level rise, within the IPCC, is a very conservative number, so the truth lies somewhere between IPCC and Jim.” In addition, one 2017 study's scenario, assuming high fossil fuel use for combustion and strong economic growth during this century, projects sea level rise of up to 132 cm (4.3 ft) on average — and an extreme scenario with as much as 189 cm (6.2 ft), by 2100.

Sea level rise

According to the Fourth (2017) National Climate Assessment (NCA) of the United States it is very likely sea level will rise between 30 and 130 cm (1.0–4.3 feet) in 2100 compared to the year 2000.

Sea level rise

In 2019, a study projected that in low emission scenario, sea level will rise 30 centimeters by 2050 and 69 centimetres by 2100, relatively to the level in 2000.

Sea level rise

There is the probability that the rise will be beyond 2 metres by 2100 in the high emission scenario, which will cause displacement of 187 million people.

Sea level rise

"The projections and results presented in several peer-reviewed publications provide evidence to support a physically plausible GMSL rise in the range of 2.0 meters (m) to 2.7 m, and recent results regarding Antarctic ice-sheet instability indicate that such outcomes may be more likely than previously thought."


'Another global warming myth comes crashing down.

Flying Spaghetti Monster

Henderson asserts that a decline in the number of pirates over the years is the cause of global warming.

James Delingpole

The conspiracy behind the Anthropogenic Global Warming myth (aka AGW; aka ManBearPig) has been suddenly, brutally and quite deliciously exposed", and "A contretemps with a Climate Bully who wonders whether I have a science degree.

James Delingpole

Delingpole has engaged in climate change denialism; in 2009 he wrote of "The conspiracy behind the Anthropogenic Global Warming myth".

Ozone depletion

Standard global warming theory predicts that the stratosphere will cool.

Ozone depletion


No warming since at least 1995, no melting glaciers and now no rising sea levels.

Global warming

Between 1993 and 2017, the global mean sea level rose on average by 3.1 ± 0.3 mm per year, with an acceleration detected as well.

Greenland ice sheet

The Greenland Ice Sheet has experienced record melting in recent years since detailed records have been kept and is likely to contribute substantially to sea level rise as well as to possible changes in ocean circulation in the future if this is sustained.

Post-glacial rebound

Recent global warming has caused mountain glaciers and the ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica to melt and global sea level to rise.

Sea level rise

This acceleration is due mostly to human-caused global warming, which is driving thermal expansion of seawater and the melting of land-based ice sheets and glaciers.

Sea level rise

Between 1993 and 2018, thermal expansion of the oceans contributed 42% to sea level rise; the melting of temperate glaciers, 21%; Greenland, 15%; and Antarctica, 8%.


The claim that 2.2 conventional jobs are destroyed   for  every new job created in the alternative energy industry is based on a study which relies on incorrect numbers, cherrypicked dates, faulty theory, flawed methodology, and is disproven by real-world examples.

Alternative medicine

However, reassessments found the study to have flawed methodology.

Economics

Economics has been subject to criticism that it relies on unrealistic, unverifiable, or highly simplified assumptions, in some cases because these assumptions simplify the proofs of desired conclusions.

History of economic thought

The Paul Samuelson's (1915–2009) Foundations of Economic Analysis published in 1947 was an attempt to show that mathematical methods could represent a core of testable economic theory.

List of topics characterized as pseudoscience:426

"Vitalists claim to be scientific, but in fact they reject the scientific method with its basic postulates of cause and effect and of provability.

Minimum wage

Michael Anyadike-Danes and Wynne Godley argue, based on simulation results, that little of the empirical work done with the textbook model constitutes a potentially falsifiable theory, and consequently empirical evidence hardly exists for that model.


for every renewable energy job that the State manages to finance, Spain’s experience...reveals with high confidence, by two different methods, that the U.S. should expect a loss of at least 2.2 jobs on average

California

As a result of the state's strong environmental movement, California has some of the most aggressive renewable energy goals in the United States, with a target for California to obtain a third of its electricity from renewables by 2020.

California

It would be possible to convert the total supply to 100% renewable energy, including heating, cooling and mobility, by 2050.

Spain

The strong economic growth helped the government to reduce the government debt as a percentage of GDP and Spain's high unemployment rate began to steadily decline.

Spain

What the programme failed to do, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis has done from 2010 to 2011 in that tens of thousands of immigrants have left the country due to lack of jobs.

United States

It brought high unemployment (which has been decreasing but remains above pre-recession levels), along with low consumer confidence, the continuing decline in home values and increase in foreclosures and personal bankruptcies, an escalating federal debt crisis, inflation, and rising petroleum and food prices.


Continued greenhouse gas emissions at or above current rates would cause further warming and induce many changes in the global climate system during the 21st century that would very likely be larger than those observed during the 20th century.

Global warming

Many regions have probably already seen increases in warm spells and heat waves, and it is virtually certain that these changes will continue over the 21st century.

Global warming

Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C (0.5 to 3.1 °F) in a moderate scenario, or as much as 2.6 to 4.8 °C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in an extreme scenario, depending on the rate of future greenhouse gas emissions and on climate feedback effects.

Greenhouse gas

During the late 20th century, a scientific consensus evolved that increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause a substantial rise in global temperatures and changes to other parts of the climate system, with consequences for the environment and for human health.

Greenhouse gas

The 2007 Fourth Assessment Report compiled by the IPCC (AR4) noted that "changes in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, land cover and solar radiation alter the energy balance of the climate system", and concluded that "increases in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations is very likely to have caused most of the increases in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century".

Scientific consensus on climate change:38

Scientific consensus on climate change

It said that Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes in all components of the climate system, increasing the likelihood of severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems.


So this is a government which is proposing to put at risk our manufacturing industry, to penalise struggling families, to make a tough situation worse for millions of households right around Australia.

Poverty in the United Kingdom

John McDonnell said the IFS analysis showed a “clear threat” to working people’s living standards, while the Liberal Democrats said that the “savage cuts” would make millions of households poorer.

Poverty in the United Kingdom

Families are forced into increasing poverty, some facing a daily struggle to pay their rent and put food on their table.

Poverty in the United Kingdom

nearly 4 million UK children are judged to live in households that would find it difficult to afford enough fruit, vegetables and other healthy foods to reach official guidelines, the Food Foundation maintains.

Poverty in the United Kingdom

The upcoming minimum wage rise will help, but many low-income working families will still find themselves worse off due to tax-credit changes.

Poverty in the United Kingdom

Fuel poverty affects over a million British working households and over 2.3 million households in total and increases in energy prices affect poor people severely.


"a paper...in Science magazine concludes that the climate sensitivity—how much the earth’s average temperature will rise as a result of a doubling of the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide—likely (that is, with a 66% probability) lies in the range 1.7°C to 2.6°C, with a median value of 2.3°C.

Climate sensitivity

When climate sensitivity is expressed for a doubling of CO2, its units are degrees Celsius (°C).

Climate sensitivity

In his first paper on the matter, he estimated that global temperature would rise by around 5 to 6 °C (9.0 to 10.8 °F) if the quantity of CO 2 was doubled.

Climate sensitivity

For constant humidity they computed a climate sensitivity of 2.3 °C per doubling of CO2 (which they rounded to 2, the value most often quoted from their work, in the abstract of the paper).

Climate sensitivity

The equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) is the temperature increase that would result from sustained doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere, after the Earth's energy budget and the climate system reach radiative equilibrium.

Climate sensitivity

IPCC authors concluded ECS is very likely to be greater than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and likely to lie in the range 2 to 4.5 °C (4 to 8.1 °F), with a most likely value of about 3 °C (5 °F).


Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), in which the likely range is given as 2.0°C to 4.5°C, with a best estimate of 3.0°C" (Pat Michaels)

Climate sensitivity

Global warming controversy

In its 2007 Fourth Assessment Report, IPCC said that climate sensitivity is "likely to be in the range 2 to 4.5 °C with a best estimate of about 3 °C".

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

It is likely to be in the range of 2 to 4.5 °C, with a best estimate of about 3 °C.

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

Surface air warming in the 21st century: Best estimate for a "low scenario" is 1.8 °C with a likely range of 1.1 to 2.9 °C (3.2 °F with a likely range of 2.0 to 5.2 °F) Best estimate for a "high scenario" is 4.0 °C with a likely range of 2.4 to 6.4 °C (7.2 °F with a likely range of 4.3 to 11.5 °F) A temperature rise of about 0.1 °C per decade would be expected for the next two decades, even if greenhouse gas and aerosol concentrations were kept at year 2000 levels.

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

Scenario B1 Best estimate temperature rise of 1.8 °C with a likely range of 1.1 to 2.9 °C (3.2 °F with a likely range of 2.0 to 5.2 °F) Sea level rise likely range [18 to 38 cm] (7 to 15 inches) Scenario A1T Best estimate temperature rise of 2.4 °C with a likely range of 1.4 to 3.8 °C (4.3 °F with a likely range of 2.5 to 6.8 °F) Sea level rise likely range [20 to 45 cm] (8 to 18 inches) Scenario B2 Best estimate temperature rise of 2.4 °C with a likely range of 1.4 to 3.8 °C (4.3 °F with a likely range of 2.5 to 6.8 °F) Sea level rise likely range [20 to 43 cm] (8 to 17 inches) Scenario A1B Best estimate temperature rise of 2.8 °C with a likely range of 1.7 to 4.4 °C (5.0 °F with a likely range of 3.1 to 7.9 °F) Sea level rise likely range [21 to 48 cm] (8 to 19 inches) Scenario A2 Best estimate temperature rise of 3.4 °C with a likely range of 2.0 to 5.4 °C (6.1 °F with a likely range of 3.6 to 9.7 °F) Sea level rise likely range [23 to 51 cm] (9 to 20 inches) Scenario A1FI Best estimate temperature rise of 4.0 °C with a likely range of 2.4 to 6.4 °C (7.2 °F with a likely range of 4.3 to 11.5 °F) Sea level rise likely range [26 to 59 cm] (10 to 23 inches) "Both past and future anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions will continue to contribute to warming and sea level rise for more than a millennium, due to the timescales required for removal of this gas from the atmosphere."


Multiple lines of evidence indicate Greenland's ice loss is accelerating and will contribute sea level rise in the order of metres over the next few centuries.

Greenland

If the Greenland ice sheet were to melt away completely, the world's sea level would rise by more than 7 m (23 ft).

Greenland

The glaciers of Greenland are also contributing to a rise in the global sea level faster than was previously believed.

Greenland

Findings show that Greenland has lost 3.8 trillion tonnes of ice since 1992, enough to raise sea levels by almost 11mm (1.06cm).

Sea level rise

Estimates on future contribution to sea level rise from Greenland range from 0.3 to 3 metres (1 to 10 ft), for the year 2100.

Sea level rise

The contribution of the Greenland ice sheet on sea level over the next couple of centuries can be very high due to a self-reinforcing cycle (a so-called positive feedback).


This was the case last year too, while earlier  years in the DMI analysis period (1958-2010) hardly ever shows Arctic  melt season temperatures this cold (Frank Lansner)

Arctic methane emissions

During the study, the most widespread surface melt on record for the past 120 years was observed in Greenland; on 12 July 2012, unfrozen water was present on almost the entire ice sheet surface (98.6%).

Arctic

The Arctic's climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers.

Climate change in the Arctic

The effects of global warming in the Arctic, or climate change in the Arctic include rising air and water temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly, observed since the 1970s.

Climate change in the Arctic

The 2007 melt season let to a minimum 39% below the 1979–2000 average, and for the first time in human memory, the fabled Northwest Passage opened completely.

Climate change in the Arctic

In 2012 however, the 2007 record low was broken in late August with three weeks still left in the melt season.


"However, a single scientist, Dr. Ben Santer of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, rewrote the draft at the IPCC’s request, deleting all five statements, replacing them with a single statement to the effect that a human influence on global climate was now discernible, and making some 200 consequential amendments.

Global Climate Coalition

The coalition report said that Benjamin D. Santer, the lead author of Chapter 8 in the assessment, entitled "Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes," had altered the text, after acceptance by the Working Group, and without approval of the authors, to strike content characterizing the uncertainty of the science.

IPCC Second Assessment Report

The Chapter 8 draft report put together on 5 October had an Executive Summary of the evidence, and after various qualifications, said "Taken together, these results point towards a human influence on climate."

IPCC Second Assessment Report

An introductory preface to the SAR written by IPCC chairman Bolin and his co-chairs John T. Houghton and L. Gylvan Meira Filho highlighted "that observations suggest 'a discernible human influence on global climate', one of the key findings of this report, adds an important new dimension to discussion of the climate issue."

IPCC Second Assessment Report

Prior to the publication of the Second Assessment Report, the industry group Global Climate Coalition distributed a report entitled "The IPCC: Institutionalized Scientific Cleansing" to reporters, US Congressmen, and scientists, which said that Santer had altered the text, after acceptance by the Working Group, and without approval of the authors, to strike content characterizing the uncertainty of the science.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:122

The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate (considerable progress since the 1990 report in distinguishing between natural and anthropogenic influences on climate, because of: including aerosols; coupled models; pattern-based studies) Climate is expected to continue to change in the future (increasing realism of simulations increases confidence; important uncertainties remain but are taken into account in the range of model projections) There are still many uncertainties (estimates of future emissions and biogeochemical cycling; models; instrument data for model testing, assessment of variability, and detection studies) The Third Assessment Report (TAR) was completed in 2001 and consists of four reports, three of them from its Working Groups: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability Working Group III: Mitigation Synthesis Report A number of the TAR's conclusions are given quantitative estimates of how probable it is that they are correct, e.g., greater than 66% probability of being correct.


"the temperature increase in the second half of the 20th century could have taken place in steps driven by major ENSO events" (Jens Raunsø Jensen)

20th century

The average global temperature on Earth has increased by about 0.8° Celsius (1.4° Fahrenheit) since 1880; Two-thirds of the warming has occurred since 1975, at a rate of roughly 0.15-0.20 °C per decade.

El Niño–Southern Oscillation

For example, one of the most recent results, even after subtracting the positive influence of decadal variation, is shown to be possibly present in the ENSO trend, the amplitude of the ENSO variability in the observed data still increases, by as much as 60% in the last 50 years.

Global warming

But, more accurately, global warming is the mainly human-caused increase in global surface temperatures and its projected continuation, while climate change includes both global warming and its effects, such as changes in precipitation.

Global warming

IPCC AR5 SYR Glossary 2014, p. 124: Global warming refers to the gradual increase, observed or projected, in global surface temperature, as one of the consequences of radiative forcing caused by anthropogenic emissions.

Global warming

IPCC AR4 WG1 Ch9 2007, p. 690: "Recent estimates indicate a relatively small combined effect of natural forcings on the global mean temperature evolution of the second half of the 20th century, with a small net cooling from the combined effects of solar and volcanic forcings."


A generous estimate of the energy generated by satellites is around 1 million times too small to cause global warming.

Deforestation

However, the incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large amounts of CO2, which contributes to global warming.

Global warming potential

The radiative forcing capacity (RF) is the amount of energy per unit area, per unit time, absorbed by the greenhouse gas, that would otherwise be lost to space.

Global warming

More of the Sun's energy is now absorbed in these regions, contributing to Arctic amplification, which has caused Arctic temperatures to increase at more than twice the rate of the rest of the world.

Global warming

Warming of the ocean accounts for about 93% of the increase in the Earth's energy inventory between 1971 and 2010 (high confidence), with warming of the upper (0 to 700 m) ocean accounting for about 64% of the total.

Global warming

Global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2010 were equivalent to 49 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide (using the most recent global warming potentials over 100 years from the AR5 report).


Global Warming history completely coincides with the history of artificial satellites and the use of microwave frequencies from outer space.

20th century

Over time, a massive system of artificial satellites was placed into orbit around Earth.

Communications satellite

A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunications signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth.

Communications satellite

Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and microwave frequencies.

Global warming

Climate proxy records show that natural variations offset the early effects of the Industrial Revolution, so there was little net warming between the 18th century and the mid-19th century, when thermometer records began to provide global coverage.

Global warming

Solar irradiance has been measured directly by satellites, and indirect measurements are available beginning in the early 1600s.


Sending oscillating microwaves from an antenna inside a vacuum through an electromagnetic field through a dielectric material, such as water, creates radio frequency heating at the molecular level

Dielectric heating

Dielectric heating, also known as electronic heating, radio frequency heating, and high-frequency heating, is the process in which a radio frequency (RF) alternating electric field, or radio wave or microwave electromagnetic radiation heats a dielectric material.

Dielectric heating

At higher frequencies, this heating is caused by molecular dipole rotation within the dielectric.

Electromagnetic radiation

An example is absorption or emission of radio waves by antennas, or absorption of microwaves by water or other molecules with an electric dipole moment, as for example inside a microwave oven.

Microwave oven

Water, fat, and other substances in the food absorb energy from the microwaves in a process called dielectric heating.

Microwave

A microwave oven passes microwave radiation at a frequency near 2.45 GHz (12 cm) through food, causing dielectric heating primarily by absorption of the energy in water.


"The IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report, 2007, carries in three places a graph in which the Hadley Center’s global mean surface temperature anomaly dataset from 1850-2005 is displayed with four arbitrarily-chosen trend-lines overlaid upon it.

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

Climate Change 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific, technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change, its potential effects, and options for adaptation and mitigation.

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

This section of the report, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, assessed current scientific knowledge of "the natural and human drivers of climate change" as well as observed changes in climate.

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

The Synthesis Report also brings in relevant parts some material contained in the full Working Group Reports over and above what is included in the Summary for Policymakers in these three Reports.

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

Table SPM-2 lists recent trends along with certainty levels for the trend having actually occurred, for a human contribution to the trend, and for the trend occurring in the future.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:286

The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) published in 2007 featured a graph showing 12 proxy based temperature reconstructions, including the three highlighted in the 2001 Third Assessment Report (TAR); Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1999 as before, Jones et al.


...there [is] anecdotal and other evidence suggesting similar melts from 1938-43 and on other occasions.

Fuse (electrical)

If too high a current flows, the element rises to a higher temperature and either directly melts, or else melts a soldered joint within the fuse, opening the circuit.

Lava

They were formed by the melting of sulfur deposits at temperatures as low as 113 °C (235 °F).

Soldering

Hot-bar reflow is a selective soldering process where two pre-fluxed, solder coated parts are heated with heating element (called a thermode) to a sufficient temperature to melt the solder.

Soldering

SnPb 63/37 Eutectic solder melts at 183 °C.

Soldering

SAC lead free solder melts at 217–220 °C.


"Disasters Cost More Than Ever — But Not Because of Climate Change" (Roger Pielke Jr.)

Climate change mitigation

By addressing climate change, we can avoid the costs associated with the effects of climate change.

Global warming controversy

Global warming controversy

It would be cheaper, they say, to wait for the impacts of climate change and then adapt to them" says writer and environmental activist George Monbiot in an article addressing the supposed economic hazards of addressing climate change.

Roger A. Pielke Jr.

He also states that, "Any conceivable emissions reductions policies, even if successful, cannot have a perceptible impact on the climate for many decades", and from this he concludes that, "In coming decades the only policies that can effectively be used to manage the immediate effects of climate variability and change will be adaptive."

Scientific consensus on climate change:122

Scientific consensus on climate change

Further global climate changes are predicted, with impacts expected to become more costly as time progresses.


the satellite sensors show less warming in the lower troposphere (approximately 10,000 feet above the earth’s surface) than is reported by surface temperature readings.

Atmosphere of Earth

Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere.

Climate of Antarctica

Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures, with −93.2 °C (−135.8 °F) having been observed at the cloud-free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010.

Earth

The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at Vostok Station in 1983, but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as −94.7 °C (−138.5 °F) in East Antarctica.

Global warming

According to basic physical principles, the greenhouse effect produces warming of the lower atmosphere (the troposphere), but cooling of the upper atmosphere (the stratosphere).

Global warming

Currently, surface temperatures are rising by about 0.2 °C per decade.


Global warming theory holds that one of the fingerprints of human-induced global warming is more rapid warming in the lower troposphere than at the surface (James Taylor)

Attribution of recent climate change:117

Attribution of recent climate change

Observations from weather balloons, satellites, and surface thermometers seemed to show the opposite behaviour (more rapid warming of the surface than the troposphere).

Attribution of recent climate change:201

Attribution of recent climate change

Models and observations (see figure above, middle) show that greenhouse gas results in warming of the lower atmosphere at the surface (called the troposphere) but cooling of the upper atmosphere (called the stratosphere).

Global warming

Therefore, a key approach is to use physically or statistically based computer modelling of the climate system to determine unique fingerprints for all potential causes.

Scientific consensus on climate change

Scientific consensus on climate change:511

Scientific consensus on climate change

The spatial and temporal fingerprint of warming can be traced to increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, which are a direct result of burning fossil fuels, broad-scale deforestation and other human activity."


In those days you couldn’t have seen across the street for all the carbon emissions and the crap coming out of the chimneys.'

Air pollution

Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.

Air pollution

Carbon monoxide poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors or in a confined space, such as a tent.

Air pollution

"The Worst Climate Pollution Is Carbon Dioxide".

Global warming

Global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2010 were equivalent to 49 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide (using the most recent global warming potentials over 100 years from the AR5 report).

Greenhouse gas

Average carbon emissions within the haulage industry are falling—in the thirty-year period from 1977 to 2007, the carbon emissions associated with a 200-mile journey fell by 21 percent; NOx emissions are also down 87 percent, whereas journey times have fallen by around a third.


Ljungqvist's millennial temperature reconstruction was very similar to Moberg et al.

Hockey stick controversy

Ljungqvist's 2,000 year extratropical Northern Hemisphere reconstruction generally agreed well with Mann et al.

Hockey stick graph

A 2,000 year extratropical Northern Hemisphere reconstruction by Ljungqvist published by Geografiska Annaler in September 2010 drew on additional proxy evidence to show both a Roman Warm Period and a Medieval Warm Period with decadal mean temperatures reaching or exceeding the reference 1961–1990 mean temperature level.

Hockey stick graph

A reconstruction of Arctic temperatures over four centuries by Overpeck et al.

List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years:52

Ljungqvist 2010 "A New Reconstruction of Temperature Variability in the Extra-Tropical Northern Hemisphere During the Last Two Millennia".

North Report

Its main findings were; 20th century instrumentally measured warming showed in observational evidence, and can be simulated with climate models, large-scale surface temperature reconstructions "yield a generally consistent picture of temperature trends during the preceding millennium", including the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age, "but the exact timing and duration of warm periods may have varied from region to region, and the magnitude and geographic extent of the warmth are uncertain."


It also concludes that current northern hemisphere surface air temperatures are significantly higher than during the peak of the Medieval Warm Period (MWP).

Earth

Consequently, summers are 2.3 °C (4 °F) warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.

Hockey stick controversy

He wrote that this graph "asserts that temperatures during the Medieval Warm Period were higher than those of today", and described climate changes as due to solar variation.

Hockey stick controversy

The authors concluded that "Northern Hemisphere mean annual temperatures for three of the past eight years are warmer than any other year since (at least) AD1400", and estimated empirically that greenhouse gases had become the dominant climate forcing during the 20th century.

Medieval Warm Period

Peak temperatures did not rise as high as those from the late 20th century, which were unprecedented in the area during the study period of 1600 years.

Medieval Warm Period

It was only in the 20th and 21st centuries that the Northern Hemisphere experienced higher temperatures.


'What I can comment on is this prediction by Dr. Hansen: “The West Side Highway [which runs along the Hudson River] will be under water.”

West Side Highway

UDC's "Water Edge Study" called for the highway to be routed above the water at the ends of the then mostly abandoned piers on the Hudson River and the addition of hundreds of acres of concrete platforms between the bulkhead and the pierhead lines for parks and apartments.

West Side Highway

"New York to Build Elevated Highway: Road for Fast Motor Traffic Will Run Along the Hudson Waterfront From Seventy-Second to Canal Street—Will Relieve Congestion on the West Side".

West Side Highway

"Elevated Highway Along Hudson Shore Is Ordered by City: Estimate Board Passes Half of Miller Plan for Viaduct From 59th to 72d Street".

West Side Highway

Before the West Side Highway was built, the road along the Hudson River was a busy one, with significant cross traffic going to docks and ferries.

West Side Highway

He suggested Hudson River Boulevard for the name of the highway.


CO2 constitutes 80% of the non-condensing greenhouse gas forcing.

Greenhouse gas

The trucking and haulage industry plays a part in production of CO 2, contributing around 20% of the UK's total carbon emissions a year, with only the energy industry having a larger impact at around 39%.

Greenhouse gas

These emissions include CO 2 from fossil fuel use and from land use, as well as emissions of methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto Protocol.

Greenhouse gas

Overall, developed countries accounted for 83.8% of industrial CO 2 emissions over this time period, and 67.8% of total CO 2 emissions.

Greenhouse gas

Oxidation of CO to CO 2 directly produces an unambiguous increase in radiative forcing although the reason is subtle.

Greenhouse gas

Projected annual energy-related CO 2 emissions in 2030 were 40–110% higher than in 2000, with two-thirds of the increase originating in developing countries.


"Cloud cover in models is poorly treated and inaccurately predicted.

Cloud

Leading global models produce quite different results, however, with some showing increasing low clouds and others showing decreases.

Cloud

"Marine boundary layer clouds at the heart of tropical cloud feedback uncertainties in climate models".

Models of communication

Such approaches are meant to predict a phenomenon.

Situation awareness

Predictive utility of an objective measure of situation awareness.

Situation awareness

It also includes prognosis, an awareness of what might happen next.


Yet clouds reflect about seventy-five watts per square meter.

Sunlight

If the extraterrestrial solar radiation is 1367 watts per square meter (the value when the Earth–Sun distance is 1 astronomical unit), then the direct sunlight at Earth's surface when the Sun is at the zenith is about 1050 W/m2, but the total amount (direct and indirect from the atmosphere) hitting the ground is around 1120 W/m2.

Sunlight

Dividing the irradiance of 1050 W/m2 by the size of the Sun's disk in steradians gives an average radiance of 15.4 MW per square metre per steradian.

Sunlight

100 watts per square meter ... 14,000 lux ... corresponds to ... daytime with overcast clouds Craig Bohren.

Sunlight

Other sources indicate an "Average over the entire earth" of "164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day".

Sunlight

Total solar irradiance (TSI) – the amount of solar radiation received at the top of Earth's atmosphere – has been measured since 1978 by a series of overlapping NASA and ESA satellite experiments to be 1.365 kilowatts per square meter (kW/m²).


Given that a doubling of carbon dioxide would change the surface heat flux by only two watts per square meter, it is evident that a small change in cloud cover can strongly affect the response to carbon dioxide."

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

CO 2 absorbs and emits infrared radiation at wavelengths of 4.26 µm (asymmetric stretching vibrational mode) and 14.99 µm (bending vibrational mode) and consequently is a greenhouse gas that plays a significant role in influencing Earth's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect.

Global warming

The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water vapour feedback, the ice–albedo feedback, and probably the net effect of clouds.

Global warming

If cloud cover increases, more sunlight will be reflected back into space, cooling the planet.

Global warming

While water vapour (~50%) and clouds (~25%) are the biggest contributors to the greenhouse effect, they increase as a function of temperature and are therefore considered feedbacks.

Radiative forcing

A typical value of λ, 0.8 K/(W/m2), gives an increase in global temperature of about 1.6 K above the 1750 reference temperature due to the increase in CO 2 over that time (278 to 405 ppm, for a forcing of 2.0 W/m2), and predicts a further warming of 1.4 K above present temperatures if the CO 2 mixing ratio in the atmosphere were to become double its pre-industrial value; both of these calculations assume no other forcings.


the Great Barrier Reef is in fine fettle

Great Barrier Reef

The Queensland "shark control" program uses shark nets and drum lines with baited hooks to kill sharks in the Great Barrier Reef – there are 173 lethal drum lines in the Great Barrier Reef.

Great Barrier Reef

The percentage of baby corals being born on the Great Barrier Reef dropped drastically in 2018 and scientists are describing it as the early stage of a "huge natural selection event unfolding".

Great Barrier Reef

Seabirds will land on the platforms and defecate which will eventually be washed into the sea.

Great Barrier Reef

When Queensland edged into tropical waters 24 million years ago, some coral grew, but a sedimentation regime quickly developed with erosion of the Great Dividing Range; creating river deltas, oozes and turbidites, unsuitable conditions for coral growth.

Great Barrier Reef

Crescentic reefs are also found in the far north of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, and in the Swain Reefs (20–22 degrees south).


About 60% of the warming observed from 1970 to 2000 was very likely caused by this natural 60-year climatic cycle during its warming phase...

Climate variability

Given that records of solar activity are accurate, solar activity may have contributed to part of the modern warming that peaked in the 1930s, in addition to the 60-year temperature cycles that result in roughly 0.5 °C of warming during the increasing temperature phase.

Global warming

In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.

Global warming

Before the Industrial Revolution, naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases caused the air near the surface to be warmer by about 33 °C (59 °F) than it would be in their absence.

Holocene

This period of warmth ended about 5,500 years ago with the descent into the Neoglacial and concomitant Neopluvial.

Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum

These can be defined as geologically brief (<200,000 year) events characterized by rapid global warming, major changes in the environment, and massive carbon addition.


"Skeptics hope that Postma’s alternative thermal model will lead  to the birth of a new climatology, one that actually follows the laws of  physics and properly physical modeling techniques...

Meteorology

It was not until after the elucidation of the laws of physics and more particularly, the development of the computer, allowing for the automated solution of a great many equations that model the weather, in the latter half of the 20th century that significant breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved.

Physics

The problems in this field start with a "mathematical model of a physical situation" (system) and a "mathematical description of a physical law" that will be applied to that system.

Science

In addition to testing hypotheses, scientists may also generate a model, an attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested, based on observable phenomena.

Theoretical physics

"Modelers" (also called "model-builders") often appear much like phenomenologists, but try to model speculative theories that have certain desirable features (rather than on experimental data), or apply the techniques of mathematical modeling to physics problems.

Theoretical physics

Theoretical advances may consist in setting aside old, incorrect paradigms (e.g., aether theory of light propagation, caloric theory of heat, burning consisting of evolving phlogiston, or astronomical bodies revolving around the Earth) or may be an alternative model that provides answers that are more accurate or that can be more widely applied.


"There are other possible causes for climate change which could be associated with solar activity or related to variations in the temperature of the liquid core of the Earth, which is about 5,400 degrees Celsius.

Attribution of recent climate change:212

Attribution of recent climate change

According to Wilson, "Wobbles in the orbit of Mars are the main cause of its climate change in the current era" (see also orbital forcing).

Attribution of recent climate change:224

Attribution of recent climate change

Henrik Svensmark has suggested that the magnetic activity of the sun deflects cosmic rays, and that this may influence the generation of cloud condensation nuclei, and thereby have an effect on the climate.

Attribution of recent climate change

Some of the main human activities that contribute to global warming are: increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, for a warming effect global changes to land surface, such as deforestation, for a warming effect increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols, mainly for a cooling effect In addition to human activities, some natural mechanisms can also cause climate change, including for example, climate oscillations, changes in solar activity, and volcanic activity.

Attribution of recent climate change:529

Attribution of recent climate change

"The main cause of climate change during the last millennia is the corresponding cyclic variation of the 80- and 200-year component of irradiance correlated with activity.

Earth

At the center, the temperature may be up to 6,000 °C (10,830 °F), and the pressure could reach 360 GPa (52 million psi).


We don't need a high heat flow - just a high temperature for the core to affect the surface climate.

Earth

Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir.

Effects of global warming

Global warming refers to the long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system.

El Niño–Southern Oscillation

El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an irregularly periodic variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean, affecting the climate of much of the tropics and subtropics.

Tropical cyclone

From hydrostatic balance, the warm core translates to lower pressure at the center at all altitudes, with the maximum pressure drop located at the surface.

Volcano

Usually, only mafic flows will erupt as pāhoehoe, since they often erupt at higher temperatures or have the proper chemical make-up to allow them to flow with greater fluidity.


Over the last decade, heatwaves are five times more likely than if there had been no global warming.

Bushfires in Australia

Australia's climate has warmed by more than one degree Celsius over the past century, causing an increase in the frequency and intensity of heatwaves and droughts.

Effects of global warming

In the last 30–40 years, heat waves with high humidity have become more frequent and severe.

Global warming

Many regions have probably already seen increases in warm spells and heat waves, and it is virtually certain that these changes will continue over the 21st century.

Global warming

Since the 1950s, droughts and heat waves have appeared simultaneously with increasing frequency.

Heat wave

The effects of climate change have been projected to make heat waves in places such as Europe up to five times more likely to occur.